Index
A
ABLE, Shot, 17
Absorption, through the skin or open wound, 107
Activation products, 361
neutron-induced, 180–181
Activity median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD), 102–104, 107, 169–173, 175–176, 178–179, 187, 212–214, 224, 250, 289, 320, 361
Ainsworth, USS, 284–285
Al-Nabulsi, Isaf
Otchin’s letter to, 333–334
Schaeffer’s letters to, 315–329, 331–332
Alamogordo bombing range, 16
Allen M. Sumner, USS, 161
Alpha particles, 32, 105, 185, 362
AMAD. See Activity median aerodynamic diameter
APPLE-II, Shot, 130–131, 137, 201
ARGUS, Operation, 17
Assumptions
about random locations, 150
about shielding factors, 126
inconsistent application of, 128
with substantial uncertainty or tending to underestimate inhalation dose, 182–210
tending to overestimate inhalation dose, 101, 169–182
used in internal dose screen, 241–242
Atmospheric nuclear-weapons detonations exposing military personnel, 26
locations of, 19
Atmospheric testing, 51–52, 55, 362
an underutilized resource, 3
compensation program for, 22
concerns expressed by, 42–43
data solicited from, 23
dose reconstructions for, 38–41, 335–348
frustration of, 236–237
giving the benefit of the doubt, 3, 25, 38–40
interaction with, 47–48
need to better inform, 3–4, 238–239, 260
Average doses, 2
on USS Salt Lake City, 79
B
Backscatter, 84
Badged dose
See also Film badges
BADGER, Shot, 149
BANEBERRY, Shot, 356–357
Barss report, 80, 82–85, 116–118, 160, 164–165
Basal cell carcinomas, 63, 362
Battalion Combat Teams (BCTs), 113–114, 139
Becquerel (Bq), 362
BEIR V. See Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Benefit of the doubt
denied to atomic veterans, 128, 137, 140, 143–145
given to atomic veterans, 3, 25, 38–40
importance of, 39–40, 230, 265
skin and eye doses from exposure to, 3, 66, 80–81
Beta radiation, 21, 54, 63, 80, 140, 363
adjusting, 82
Beta skin and eye dose estimates, 160–166
Beta-to-gamma dose ratios, 81–84, 116–117, 363
for contaminated surfaces used at Pacific tests, 83
correction of, 72
See also Accuracy;
Precision
introduced into film-badge data reporting, 72
Bikini Atoll, nuclear testing in, 17, 73, 78, 218, 283
Bile duct cancer, 24
Bingham, New Mexico, 17
Bioassay program to assess internal exposures to plutonium, 247–248
Biokinetic model, 101, 170, 187, 363
Biological effectiveness, 363
of neutrons, 159
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR V), 165
Biological responses, 105, 363
“Black rain,” 107
Blast-wave effects, 21
analysis of potential inhalation doses due to, 335–348
discussion of dose reconstructions for participant groups, 345–347
discussion of example analysis and
importance of inhalation doses, 342–344
effects of neglected, 3, 204–205
implications for dose reconstructions for atomic veterans, 335–348
implications of, 344–345
at Operation PLUMBBOB, Shot HOOD, 339–342
radiation environment in forward areas at Shot HOOD, 335–338
BOLTZMANN, Shot, 201
Bq. See Becquerel
Brain cancer, 25
BRAVO, Shot, 106–107, 184, 218, 283–285, 328
Breast cancer, 24
BRER. See Board on Radiation Effects Research
Bronchiolo-alveolar cancer, 25
Burden of proof, 66
Bushey, Frank, 165
BUSTER-JANGLE, Operation, 17, 139, 194, 196
C
C. See Coulomb
C and P. See Compensation and Pension Service
Calculations, problem with illegible, 4
Camp Desert Rock (CDR), 22, 137
Camp Mercury, 136
listed as radiogenic, 24–25, 363
Case #22, 125, 128, 144, 180, 212, 282–285
dose summary report, 282
external dose assessment, 284
internal dose assessment, 285
total dose summary, 285
unit and personal activities, 283
Case #60, 212, 234, 238, 286–290
dose summary report, 286
external dose assessment, 288
internal dose assessment, 289
total dose summary, 285
unit and personal activities, 287
Cases
#2, 160
#5, 212
#9, 144, 146, 160–163, 165, 234
#10, 143–144
#11, 143–144
#12, 160–163
#20, 160
#30, 208
#34, 208
#38, 144–145, 160, 180, 212, 234, 245
#40, 125, 136–137, 144, 160–163, 234
#41, 245
#42, 142
#47, 125, 135–136, 143–144, 180, 212, 234, 245
#48, 154
#52, 208
#56, 208
#57, 234–235
#58, 145, 180, 193, 212, 215n, 238
#64, 160–163
#66, 160–163
#67, 160
#69, 145
#70, 160
#71, 160–161
#74, 143
#76, 245
#77, 125, 129–132, 201, 234–235
#78, 180, 194, 212, 234–235, 245
#80, 194
#85, 234
#90, 201
#91, 249n
#92, 144
#99, 125, 138, 144, 207–208, 248
See also Contributed case
CASTLE, Operation, 17, 106–107, 126–127, 135, 148, 152, 156, 184, 210, 218, 283–284, 315–316, 328
CBR Defense Team Training, 131
CDR. See Camp Desert Rock
Central estimates, 111, 114, 142–147, 157–159, 214, 364
CEPXS radiation transport code, 80, 329
CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations; Legislation
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 24, 364
Ci. See Curie
CIC. See Coordination and Information Center
CIRRPC. See Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination
Claims
communications with veterans, 56–57
filed under nonpresumptive regulation, 52–54
filed under presumptive regulation, 54–56
granted for nonpresumptive diseases, 252–253
medical opinions and probability of causation, 57–64
need for veterans to request re-evaluation of prior, 3
process of submitting and deciding, 51–64
VA adjudication of, 45
Clothing modification factors, 84
Clothing Test Project, 131
Cloud-sampling aircraft, 130
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 25, 51–52, 54, 364
See also Legislation
Coefficient of variation (CV), 114–115, 150, 156, 364
“Cohort” film badges, 71, 79, 146, 364
Committee on Interagency Radiation Research and Policy Coordination (CIRRPC), 58–62, 250, 333–334
Communication, with atomic veterans, 56–57, 236–239
Compensation, 24
defining appropriate, 24
fixed rate, 323
re-evaluations of prior decisions about, 248–251
Compensation and Pension (C and P) Service, 50, 54, 57
Composite beta dose coefficient, for immersion in fallout-contaminated air, 85
Concentrations of radionuclides in air in an atmospheric cloud, 99–100
in descending fallout, 97–99
fractionation of radionuclides, 92–94
inhalation of suspended neutron activation products in soil, 96–97
methods of estimating, 88–101
methods of estimating concentrations of radionuclides in air, 100–101
in resuspended fallout, 89–92
resuspension of radionuclides in deposited fallout, 94–96
shots at Nevada Test Site taking inhalation of resuspended fallout from previous shots into account, 92
Concerns of veterans, 41–43
Confidence interval, 36n, 66n, 364
Congress, 23–24
questions raised by, 28
See also Legislation;
Senate
Contaminated areas at NTS
bulldozer clearing path through, 138
resuspension factors normally assumed for various activities of atomic veterans in, 95
Contaminated food and water, 215n
Contaminated ships in the Pacific, resuspension factors normally assumed for various activities of participants on, 96
Contributed case, 132–135
Coordination and Information Center (CIC), 152, 154
Coulomb (C), 367
Credibility limit, 58
doses (rad) to the affected organ or tissue based on 95%, 60
doses (rad) to the affected organ or tissue based on 99%, 61
of estimated upper bounds of inhalation dose, 224–226
CROSSROADS, Operation, 17, 27, 76–77, 128, 135, 153, 155–156, 191, 208, 232
Crystal Ball® 2000 software, 214
Curie (Ci), 365
Curtis, USS, 152
CV. See Coefficient of variation
D
Daily dose tables, 73
Decisioneering, Inc., 214n
Decontamination techniques, 116, 125, 152
Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), 5, 23, 237, 310
See also Defense Threat Reduction Agency
Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA), 1–2, 4–6, 8, 11–13, 16, 22–25, 27, 44–45, 47, 49, 51–57, 73, 119, 122–123, 141, 143n, 245–246, 321
Committee to Review the Dose Reconstruction Program, ix, 306
Demarcation line, 125
Department of Veterans Affairs. See U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
Depletion, 81
Desert Rock Radiological Safety (Rad-Safe) Section, 129, 131
DF. See Dose conversion factor
DNA. See Defense Nuclear Agency
Documentation of dose calculations, 121–122, 234–235
case #3, 234
case #6, 234
case #18, 234
case #53, 235
case #57, 235
case #77, 235
case #78, 235
DOD. See U.S. Department of Defense
DOE. See U.S. Department of Energy
DOMINIC-I, Operation, 17, 71, 308
DOMINIC-II, Operation, 17, 71, 308
Dose assessments, 365
need for veterans to request updated, 3
Dose coefficients
biological effectiveness of alpha particles, 105
chemical form of inhaled radionuclides, 104–105
inhalation dose coefficients used in dose reconstructions, 106
for inhalation of radionuclides, 101–106
size of inhaled particles, 102–104
Dose conversion factor (DF), 88n
See also Dose coefficients
Dose equivalent, 35
See also Equivalent dose
Dose reconstruction
conduct of over time, 40–41
deficiency in, 223
definition of exposure scenarios, 30–32
development and implementation of methods of estimating dose, 34–35
elements of, 30–38
evaluation of uncertainties in estimates of
dose, 36–37
exposure scenario assumed in, 354–355
focus on specific persons, 38–39
identification of exposure pathways, 32–34
importance of benefit of the doubt, 39–40
for occupation forces in Japan, 107–110, 226–227
presentation and interpretation of results, 37
principles of, 28–41
process of, 30–38
quality assurance and quality control, 37–38
reviewed by committee, 291–301
“scientific,” 69
special aspects of, 38–41
Dose reconstruction memoranda
case #22, 282–285
case #60, 286–290
from sample cases reviewed by committee, 281–290
Dose reconstruction program, 366
beginning efforts in, 1
historical vs. retrospective, 29
need for independent oversight of, 4
need for quality control in, 4
Dose summary reports
for case #22, 282
for case #60, 286
Dosimetric models, 101, 170, 177, 366
Dosimetry, 366
based on film badges, 21
history of, 307–308
DTRA. See Defense Threat Reduction Agency
E
Effective resuspension factor, 192, 366
Effective shielding factor, 115
Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), 23
See also U.S. Department of Energy
Environmental Policy Institute, 28
EPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Equivalent dose, 35, 90, 229n, 364, 366–367
ERDA. See Energy Research and Development Administration
Esophageal cancer, 24
Estimates, 367
allowing for uncertainty in, 68
assumptions involved in, 3
development and implementation of methods for making, 34–35
plausibility of, 37
of skin doses, 164–166
of total dose and uncertainty for individual participants, 119–121
Estimation of beta dose to skin and lens of the eye, 80–86
from immersion in contaminated air or water, 83–84
skin contamination, 84–86
from standing on contaminated surface, 81–83
Estimation of external dose, 69–86
estimation of neutron doses, 79–80
external dose estimation from film-badge data, 70–72
external gamma-dose estimation based on dose reconstruction, 72–79
Estimation of internal dose, 86–107
absorption through the skin or open wound, 107
methods of estimating ingestion dose, 106–107
methods of estimating inhalation dose, 87–106
Evaluation
of approach to dose reconstruction, 358–359
of ingestion doses, 219
of methods of estimating internal dose, 166–226
of uncertainties in estimates of dose, 36–37
Evaluation of methods of estimating inhalation dose, 169–215
assumptions tending to overestimate inhalation dose, 169–182
assumptions with substantial uncertainty or tending to underestimate inhalation dose, 182–210
Evaluation of potential inhalation doses, 215–219
evaluation of ingestion doses, 219
example analysis of potential ingestion doses at the NTS, 216–217
example analysis of potential ingestion doses in the Pacific, 217–219
Example analysis
of potential ingestion doses at the NTS, 216–217
of potential ingestion doses in the Pacific, 217–219
Explanations, to atomic veterans regarding implications of committee’s findings, 263–264
to contaminated ground, 116–117
diseases caused by, 1
Exposure pathways, 367
of external exposure, 33–34
identification of, 32–34
of internal exposure, 33–34
Exposure scenarios, 66–69, 367
adequacy of scenario determinations, 139–140
bulldozer clearing path through a contaminated area, 138
definition of, 30–32
determination of, 124–140
discussion of selected cases illustrating scenario determination problems, 127–139
F-84G cloud-sampling aircraft, 130, 133
implications of example analysis for, 344–345
individualized dose reconstructions, 68–69
individualized reconstruction of scenarios, 69
inhalation in an atmospheric cloud, 99–100
inhalation of descending fallout, 97–99
inhalation of resuspended fallout, 89–92
inhalation of suspended neutron activation products in soil, 96–97
problems developing, 3
sailors sweeping deck of ship, 128
tents on Parry Island at Operation CASTLE, 127
typical metal buildings used at Enewetak, 126
unit-based dose reconstructions, 67–68
US Army observers examining dummies set up near ground zero, 130
External beta dose
from immersion in contaminated air or water, 83–84
from standing on contaminated surface, 81–83
External dose assessment
for case #22, 284
for case #60, 288
External dose estimation, 140–166
beta skin and eye dose estimates, 160–166
external gamma doses based on film-badge data, 142–146
from film-badge data, 70–72
findings on estimates of external gamma dose, 156–158
neutron dose estimates, 158–160
reconstructed external gamma doses, 146–156
External exposure, 32
External gamma doses
based on film-badge data, 142–146
central estimates, 142–145
estimation based on dose reconstruction, 72–79, 155
unit dose reconstructions at the NTS, 73–75
unit dose reconstructions for Pacific test sites, 76–79
upper bounds, 145–146
F
F-84G cloud-sampling aircraft, 130, 133–134
“Fact Sheets,” 57
Fall velocities, 205
Fallout field, 201
FAT MAN bomb, 17
FBE. See Film-badge equivalent dose factor
50th Chemical Platoon, 129, 132
FIIDOS computer code, 87, 89n, 104–107, 250, 289, 307, 319
Film Badge Dosimetry in Atmospheric Nuclear Tests, 27, 315
Film-badge equivalent (FBE) dose factor, 151
Film-badge records, 26, 142–146, 368
dosimetry based on, 21, 68, 70
gaps in, 70–71
Film badges, 111
“permanent” vs. “mission,” 68, 72
upper-bound estimates, 112
as worn by participants at atomic tests, 71
Findings
on the bioassay program to assess internal exposures to plutonium, 247–248
on communication with atomic veterans, 236–239
on documentation of dose calculations, 234–235
on estimates of external gamma dose, 156–158
on estimation of internal dose, 219–224
implications of, 251–256
on the low-level internal dose screen, 240–247
presentation and interpretation of, 37
of previous NRC review, 167–169
on quality assurance, 233–234
on retroactive recalculations of doses and re-evaluations of prior compensation decisions, 248–251
Fission yield. See Yield 573rd Ordnance Company, 132
Fixed rate compensation, 323
Flight logs, 26
Flohr, Bradley
letter to John Till, 313–314
Schaeffer’s letters to, 312, 330
FOIA. See Freedom of Information Act
FOX, Shot, 201
of radionuclides, 92–94, 190, 202
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 310
Future compensation decisions, implications of findings for, 255–256
G
Gall bladder cancer, 24
Gamma radiation, 21, 54, 70, 140, 368
See also Photons;
X radiation
Gamma radiation field, 113
GANYMEDE, Shot, 336
GAO. See General Accounting Office
Geiger counter readings, 133, 368
General Accounting Office (GAO), ix, 1, 6, 15, 49
reports on NTPR program, 28
Generic assessments, 73, 368–369
Geometric standard deviation (GSD), 112, 151, 369
GI. See Gastrointestinal tract
GRABLE, Shot, 95, 113, 136, 198
Gray (Gy), 369
GREENHOUSE, Operation, 17, 148, 152, 156, 235, 287–288
Ground zero (GZ), 83, 108, 337–338, 346, 369
GSD. See Geometric standard deviation
Gy. See Gray
GZ. See Ground zero
H
Half-life, 369
of noble gases, 93
HARDTACK-I, Operation, 17
HARDTACK-II, Operation, 17, 336, 339
“High-siding” doses, 81, 83, 100–101, 106, 108, 111, 113, 116–119, 138, 230, 251
Hiroshima, Japan, 298–301
atomic bombings in, 1, 17, 44, 51–52, 55
military personnel stationed in, 28, 66, 107–110
Historical dose reconstruction, 29
History, 16–28
of dosimetry process, 307–308
of the NTPR program, 22–28
of previous NRC studies on military personnel exposed to radiation in atmospheric nuclear-weapons tests, 26–28
of radiation exposures of military personnel, 18–22
of the US nuclear-weapons testing program, 16–18
HOOD, Shot, 17, 201–202, 208, 246n, 335–341, 343, 345–347
dose reconstructions for participant groups at, 345–347
radiation environment in forward areas at, 335–338
I
ICRP. See International Commission on Radiological Protection
ICRU. See International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
Idealization, tendency toward, 126
Immersion dose, 33
in contaminated air or water, 117
Individual doses, uncertainties about, 2
Individualized reconstructions
dose, 68–69
of scenarios, 69
Infinite source region, 192
Information gathering, 48–50
Ingestion doses, 32
ignored in dose reconstruction, 3
methods of estimating, 106–107
Inhalation doses
coefficients used in dose reconstructions, 106
dose coefficients for inhalation of radionuclides, 101–106
example analysis and importance of, 342–344
large underestimates of, 3
methods of estimating, 87–106
Inhaled radionuclides, chemical form of, 104–105
Institute of Medicine (IOM), 27
Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program (IREP), 60–64
Internal dose assessment
for case #22, 285
for case #60, 289
Internal dose estimation, 166–226
credibility of estimated upper bounds of inhalation dose, 224–226
evaluation of methods of estimating inhalation dose, 169–215
evaluation of potential inhalation doses, 215–219
findings of previous NRC review, 167–169
findings related to estimation of internal dose, 219–224
Internal dose screen
assumptions used in, 241–242
low-level, 240–247
Internal exposure, 32
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU), 159
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), 35, 84n, 102, 107, 166, 169–180, 183–188, 342, 366, 367, 373, 376
International System of Units (SI), 369
Intestinal cancer, 24
IOM. See Institute of Medicine
IREP. See Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program
Isotropic sources, semi-infinite plane, 81
ITEM, Shot, 289
IVY, Operation, 17, 128, 133, 135, 156
J
J. See Joule
Japan
atomic-bomb survivors from, 58
occupation forces in, 65
JAYCOR Corp., 1, 6, 23, 46, 49, 52–53, 66, 123, 125, 137, 233, 246n, 306, 310, 320–321
Journada del Muerto Desert, 16
JUNO, Shot, 336
K
Kita-Kogo area (Hiroshima), 108
KT. See Kiloton
Kyushu Island, 108
L
LAN. See Local area network
Large-particle inhalation dose coefficients, 173–174
Latency period, 369
Latent periods, 369
for radiogenic diseases, 24
Legislation
32 CFR 218.3, 125
38 CFR Part 3, 25
38 CFR 3.309, 2, 7, 12, 25, 52, 54, 56, 66, 159n, 186n, 248, 252
38 CFR 3.311, 2, 7, 12, 25, 51–52, 66, 125, 252, 319, 321
governing the NTPR program, 24–25
PL 97-72, 24
PL 97-414, 57
PL 106-419, Section 305, 15
See also Senate
LET. See Linear energy transfer
doses corresponding to different credibility limits of PC for, 63
induction of, 159n
Linear energy transfer (LET), 234n, 370
LITTLE BOY bomb, 17
Liver cancer, 178
primary, 24
Local area network (LAN), 325
Lognormal distribution, 214, 370
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 17
Low-level internal dose screen, 240–247
assumptions used in, 241–242
general requirements of screening methods, 241
use in dose reconstructions for participant groups, 242–243
from smoking, 57–58
Lung clearance, 104
M
Manhattan Engineering District, 106
Marshall Islands, 106, 184, 217–218
MC. See Monte Carlo analysis
Medical opinions and probability of causation, 57–64
comparison of CIRRPC screening doses (rem) with values based on IREP methodology, 62
doses corresponding to different credibility limits of PC for leukemia, 63
doses corresponding to different credibility limits of PC for skin cancer, 63
doses (rad) to the affected organ or tissue based on 95% credibility limit, 60
doses (rad) to the affected organ or tissue based on 99% credibility limit, 61
organ or tissue doses (rad) based on NIH radioepidemiological tables, 59
MET, Shot, 129–130
Metal buildings, used at Enewetak during Operation CASTLE, typical, 126
MIKE, Shot, 133
Military personnel
exposed to radiation in atmospheric nuclear-weapons tests, 19, 26–28
leaving trench shortly after a detonation, 75
Moalem, USS, 161
Monte Carlo (MC) analysis, 150–152, 228, 371
Mortality of Nuclear Weapons Test Participants, 26
Mortality of Veteran Participants in the CROSSROADS Nuclear Test, 27
MT. See Megaton
Multiple test series, 119
Muster rolls, 26
N
NAAV. See National Association of Atomic Veterans
Nagasaki, Japan, 298–301
atomic bombings in, 1, 17, 44, 51–52, 55
military personnel stationed in, 28, 66, 107–110
NANCY, Shot, 113–114, 139, 201
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 16, 312
Board on Radiation Effects Research, 16
policies of, 49
National Association of Atomic Veterans (NAAV), 41–43, 48–50
National Cancer Institute (NCI), 60, 62
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), 18–19, 159
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 60–64
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 54
National Research Council (NRC), 2, 6, 21, 44, 68, 71–72, 111–112, 142, 145, 147, 165, 189, 221, 224, 247
public-access file of, 50
National-security oaths, 69
Naval Medical Research Institute, 106
NCI. See National Cancer Institute
NCRP. See National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
Neutron dose estimates, 140, 158–160
central estimates, 158–159
upper bounds, 159–160
Nevada Proving Ground (NPG), 17
Nevada Test Site (NTS), 3, 17, 82–83, 188, 194–207
nuclear testing at, 5–6, 9, 28, 30, 33–35, 66, 86, 113–114, 137–138, 147–148, 158, 220–223
observer and maneuver programs at, 22, 67, 73, 216–217
unit dose reconstructions at, 73–75, 148–149
News Nob, 22
NIH. See National Institutes of Health
NIOSH. See National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Nishiyama Reservoir, 108
Noble gases, 89, 93–94, 222, 371
half-lives of, 93
Nonmelanoma skin cancer, 63
basal cell carcinoma, 63
squamous cell carcinoma, 63
Nonpresumptive diseases, 51, 252, 371
number of claims granted for, 252–253
NPG. See Nevada Proving Ground
NRC. See National Research Council
NTPR. See Nuclear Test Personnel Review
NTS. See Nevada Test Site
Nuclear detonation, army personnel examining equipment damaged during, 75
Nuclear Health and Safety: Radiation Exposures for Some Cloud-Sampling Personnel Need to be Reexamined, 28
Nuclear Test Personnel Review (NTPR) program, 6–11, 35, 45, 51, 124–230
determination of exposure scenarios, 124–140
development of, 22–24
dose reconstruction for occupation forces in Japan, 226–227
dose reconstruction program of, 124–230
evaluation of method of estimating uncertainty in dose and upper bounds, 227–229
evaluation of methods of estimating internal dose, 166–226
external dose estimation, 140–166
GAO reports on, 28
history of, 22–28
key laws and regulations governing, 24–25
name of, 23n
objectives of, 25–26
summary of committee findings regarding, 229–230
website of, 26
Nuclear Test Review Information System (NuTRIS), 309
O
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), 102, 105–106, 170n
Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards (OPHEH), 54, 57
Operation PLUMBBOB, Shot HOOD, analysis of potential inhalation doses due to blast-wave effects at, 335–348
Operations. See Series; individual Operations
OPHEH. See Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards
Organ or tissue doses (rad) based on NIH radioepidemiological tables, 59
ORNL. See Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Otchin, Neil S., letter to Isaf Al-Nabulsi, 333–334
OTERO, Shot, 336
Ovarian cancer, 25
P
Pacific Proving Ground (PPG), 283
Pacific test site unit dose reconstructions, 76–79, 126
damaged quarterdeck on USS Pensacola, 155
exposure on contaminated target ships, 153–155
exposure to fallout, 149–153
radiation levels on selected target ships, 154
Pacific test sites, 82–83
film badge damage at, 71
nuclear weapons tests at, 1, 17, 20–21, 27–28, 33–34, 66, 73, 220–223
See also individual Operations and Shots;
individual test sites
Pancreatic cancer, 24
Papers, availability of, 26
Participant groups
conducting radiation survey on deck of a ship, 77
use of internal dose screen in dose reconstructions for, 242–243
Participation status, 52
Particles, size of inhaled, 102–104
Past compensation decisions, implications of findings for, 253–255
Pathways. See Exposure pathways
PC. See Probability of causation
Pensacola, USS, damaged quarterdeck on, 155
“Permanent” badges, 68, 72, 136, 372
Personal accounts, 26
Persons, focus on specific, 38–39
Pharynx cancer, 24
Phillip, USS, 165
Photon dose, 54
See also Gamma rays;
X rays
PLOWSHARE program, 18
PLUMBBOB, Operation, 17, 22, 70, 137, 193–195, 200–201, 204, 208, 246n, 335–338, 346
Plume travel, 194
Plutonium, 16, 19, 32, 86, 176–177, 187, 202, 222
bioassay program, 247–248
Pocket-dosimeter logs, 26
Potential inhalation doses, analysis of, 339–342
POW. See Prisoners of war
PPG. See Pacific Proving Ground
Presumptive diseases, 24, 52, 252, 372
Primary liver cancer, 24
Prinz Eugen, USS, 135
Prior claims, need for veterans to request re-evaluation of, 3
PRISCILLA, Shot, 204
Prisoners of war (POW), 51, 107–108
Probability of causation (PC), 57–64, 372–373
See also Risk
Processing of a radiation-related claim from a veteran
for a nonpresumptive disease, 53
for a presumptive disease, 55
Public Health Service, 57
Publication 30, 102, 104n, 105–106, 170, 213
Publication 56, 170n
Publication 59, 166
Publication 60, 184
Q
Quality assurance (QA), 37–38, 122–123, 233–236, 324, 373
Quality control (QC), 37–38, 235–236, 373
Quality factor (QF), 35n, 80, 158–159, 363, 373
Quartzsite Ridge, 351–355, 357–358
Questions from the Committee, responses to, 305–334
Questions to the Committee, responses to, 258–261
R
R. See Roentgen
Rad, 373
Rad-safe. See Radiological safety
Radiation effectiveness factors (REFs), 158–160, 186, 187n, 363, 373
Radiation environment, in forward areas at Shot HOOD, 335–338
Radiation-Exposed Veterans Compensation Act (1988), 24
Radiation exposures of military personnel, 18–22
history of, 18–22
locations of, 19
Radiation therapy, 58
Radiation-transport models, 79
Radiogenic diseases, 24, 66, 313, 374
Radiological conditions in maneuver area, 351–352
Radiological safety (Rad-safe), 113, 125–126, 140
Radionuclides, 374
airborne, 31
resuspension of large amounts of, 3
retention in the body, 101
RANGER, Operation, 326
Rare-earth elements, isotopes of, 176, 190
RBE. See Relative biological effectiveness
Re-evaluations of prior claims, need for veterans to request, 3
Re-evaluations of prior compensation
decisions, 248–251
Recommendations, 265–266
regarding a system for permanent review of the dose reconstruction program, 262
Reconstruction, 374
of external gamma doses, 146–156
of the veteran’s experiences, 69
See also Dose reconstruction program
REDWING, Operation, 68n, 70–71, 136, 142–144, 308, 316–317, 323
REECo. See Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company
Refractory elements, 93, 176–177, 190, 374
REFs. See Radiation effectiveness factors
Regulations
governing the NTPR program, 24–25
See also Legislation
Relative biological effectiveness (RBE), 159, 186, 363, 373–374
Renormalization, 89
Residence islands, 209
Respirable particles, 205, 374
Respiratory-tract model, 173, 176, 179–180, 374
Responses to questions from the Committee, 305–334
Flohr’s letter to John Till, 313–314
Otchin’s letter to Isaf Al-Nabulsi, 333–334
Schaeffer’s letter to John Till, 306–311
Schaeffer’s letters to Bradley Flohr, 312, 330
Schaeffer’s letters to Isaf Al-Nabulsi, 315–329, 331–332
Responses to questions to the Committee, 258–261
Resuspension, 375
of large amounts of radionuclides, 3, 37, 94–96, 180–181
neglected, 223
Resuspension factors, 90, 207, 366, 375
for atomic veterans in contaminated areas at NTS, 95
for participants on contaminated ships in the Pacific, 96
Retroactive recalculations of doses, 248–251
Retrospective dose reconstruction, 29
Review of the Methods Used to Assign Radiation Doses to Service Personnel at Nuclear Weapons Tests, 26–27
Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company (REECo), 309, 317, 323
ROMEO, Shot, 284–285
Rongelap Atoll, 218
Rongerik Atoll, 86, 106, 184, 218
S
Sailors sweeping deck of ship, 128
St. George, Utah, 217
Salivary gland cancer, 24–25
Sampled case files of dose reconstructions, 291–301
cases #1-99, 292–299
Hiroshima and Nagasaki cases A-L, 298–301
SANDSTONE, Operation, 17
Scenario determination problems, 127–139
case #22, 128
case #37, 137
case #40, 136–137
case #47, 135–136
case #53, 128
case #55, 136
case #73, 135
case #77, 129–132
case #84, 138–139
case #87, 137
case #93, 139
case #99, 138
contributed case, 132–135
Scenario determinations
adequacy of, 139–140
See also Exposure scenarios
Schaeffer, D. Michael, 232n
letter to John Till, 306–311
letters to Bradley Flohr, 312, 330
letters to Isaf Al-Nabulsi, 315–329, 331–332
Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), 1, 6, 23–24, 46–50, 52–53, 123, 132, 137, 141, 152, 233, 245, 246n, 306–307, 321, 332
“Scientific” dose reconstructions, 69
Screening doses (rem), comparison of CIRRPC values with values based on IREP methodology, 62
Screening methods, general requirements of, 241
Secrecy oaths, 69
Semi-infinite plane isotropic sources, 81
Senate Committee on Veterans Affairs, 1, 6, 15, 28
Service connection, 64
proving, 24
Service records, 26
SHASTA, Shot, 194–195
Shielding factor (SF), 126, 150, 191, 376
Shock wave. See Blast wave
Shots, 376
See also individual Shots
SI units. See International System of Units
Sievert (Sv), 376
Skate, USS, 154
doses corresponding to different credibility limits of PC for, 63
nonmelanoma, 63
Skin contamination, 84–86, 117–118
composite beta dose coefficient for immersion in fallout-contaminated air, 85
Skin dose, 85
Small intestine cancer, 24
Smoking, lung cancer from, 57–58
Solid tumors, induction of, 159
SOP. See Standard operating procedure
Special orders, 26
Special Weapons Command, 138
Spectrum-weighted quality factor, 80, 376
Squamous cell carcinoma, 63
Standard operating procedures (SOPs), 104n, 121–122, 231–232, 234–235, 265, 308–309, 324
Stomach cancer, 24
Strontium, isotopes of, 105
Subjective judgment, 32
Support ships, 73
Survival City Shot, 130–131
Sv. See Sievert
T
radiation levels on selected, 154, 191
Task Force WARRIOR
activities at Shot SMOKY, 349–351
alternative exposure scenario for, 355–357
dose reconstruction for, 352–354
unit dose reconstruction for, 318, 349–359
Task Group on Lung Dynamics (TGLD), 88
Task unit (TU), 287
TEAPOT, Operation, 17, 129–131, 137, 194, 199, 201, 316
Temporary duty (TDY), 283
Tents, on Parry Island at Operation CASTLE, 127
TGLD. See Task Group on Lung Dynamics
Thyroid
cancer of, 24
Till, John E.
Flohr’s letter to, 313–314
Schaeffer’s letter to, 306–311
Time, conduct of dose reconstruction over, 40–41
Time-dependent calculations, 99
Total dose summary
for case #22, 285
for case #60, 285
TRINITY, Shot, 16–17
Trinity site, nuclear testing at, 5, 28
Tritiated water vapor, 34, 107
Troops. See Military personnel
True dose, 65
TU. See Task unit
TUMBLER-SNAPPER, Operation, 17, 138, 194, 197, 201
Tumors, 166
induction of solid, 159
U
U.K. National Radiological Protection Board, 159, 186
Uncertainty, 377
in dose and upper bounds, 227–229
in estimates of doses, 36–37, 147–148
in estimates of external beta dose, 116–118
in estimates of external gamma and neutron doses, 111–115
in estimates of internal dose, 118–119
in exposure scenarios, 110–111
exposure to contaminated ground, 116–117
film-badge upper-bound estimates, 112
immersion in contaminated air or water, 117
methods of estimating or accounting for, 110–119
need to re-evaluate, 3
skin contamination, 117–118
upper-bound estimates in unit dose
reconstructions, 112–115
upper-bound estimates of neutron dose, 115
Uncertainty factors, 184, 315, 377
allowances made for, 67
UNCLE, Shot, 139
Unit and personal activities
for case #22, 283
for case #60, 287
Unit dose reconstructions, 67–68
Unit dose reconstructions at the NTS, 73–75
army personnel examining equipment damaged during a nuclear detonation, 75
for maneuver troops at Operation UPSHOT-KNOTHOLE, 74
troops leaving trench shortly after a detonation, 75
Unit dose reconstructions for Pacific test sites, 76–79
average daily doses on USS Salt Lake City at Operation CROSSROADS, Shot BAKER, 79
participants conducting radiation survey on deck of a ship, 77
underwater Shot BAKER in Bikini Lagoon, 78
Unit dose reconstructions for Task Force WARRIOR at Operation PLUMBBOB, Shot SMOKY, 318, 349–359
activities of Task Force WARRIOR at Shot SMOKY, 349–351
alternative exposure scenario for Task Force WARRIOR, 355–357
discussion of exposure scenario assumed in dose reconstruction, 354–355
dose reconstruction for Task Force WARRIOR, 352–354
evaluation of approach to dose reconstruction, 358–359
radiological conditions in maneuver area, 351–352
Unit-dose reports, 73
Unit memoranda, 26
Units of measurement, vii
Upper bound (UB) doses, 54, 64, 141, 145–160
estimates in unit dose reconstructions, 112–115
estimates of dose to occupiers of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 109
estimates of neutron dose, 115
in NTS unit dose reconstructions, 113–114, 148–149
in Pacific test site unit dose reconstructions, 114–115, 153–155
underestimation of, 3, 36n, 202
See also Uncertainty factor;
Upper confidence limit
UPSHOT-KNOTHILL, Operation, 17, 71, 73–74, 95, 113, 136–138, 148–149, 194, 198, 201, 217
Urinary tract cancer, 25
U.S. Army, observers examining dummies set up near ground zero at Operation TEAPOT Shot MET, 130
U.S. atmospheric nuclear-weapons test series, history of, 18
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), ix, 1, 5, 15, 25, 35, 313
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 71, 154, 186, 245, 309
U.S. Department of Justice, 26
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), 1, 3, 6, 10–12, 22, 26, 45–57, 59, 260
Regional Offices (VAROs), 51–57, 236–237
See also Compensation and Pension Service
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 187, 235
U.S. nuclear-weapons testing program, history of, 16–18
U.S. population, exposures of, 219
USS. See individual U.S. ships
Utirik Atoll, 218
V
VA. See U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
VAROs. See U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Regional Offices
VESTA, Shot, 336
Veterans. See “Atomic veterans”
Veterans Administration, 22n
See also U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
Veteran’s Benefits: Independent Review Could Improve Credibility of Radiation Exposure Estimates, 28
Veterans Benefits Administration, 237
Veterans’ Dioxin and Radiation Exposure Compensation Standards Act (1984), 24
Veterans Health Administration, 54
Veterans’ Health Care, Training, and Small Business Loan Act (1981), 24
Veterans Issue Tracking Adjudication Log (VITAL), 314
Volatile elements, 93, 190, 377
W
Washdowns, 116
Whole-body equivalent dose, 80, 378
WIGWAM, Operation, 17
World War II, end of, 17
“Worst-case” scenarios, 108
X
Y
Yttrium, isotopes of, 176, 190
Z