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72 Richard M. Swenson biological sciences are of great importance. As the Committee on Mathematics put it : "Some teachers of mathematics must be encour aged to gain insight about agriculture and natural resources so that they can make mathematics a living and significant subject to students in the field ." ⢠That there is critical need for a group to prepare relevant and appropriate source materials that professors may use in orienting their courses to agriculture and the biological sciences. ⢠That more time should be devoted to basic science and less to courses of the "how to do it" variety . C O M M ITTEE O N C H E M ISTRY The Committee o n Chemistry recommended a minimum o f one full academic year ( 1 0 semester hours) for all students in agriculture and natural resources. This course should clearly show the impact of mod em chemistry on society and should present an adequate overview of chemistry. It was suggested that it be comprised of 9Q- l 00 lectures, 30 discussion sessions, and 30 laboratory periods. It would involve integration of inorganic, physical, analytical, and organic chemistry. The exact order of topics may vary appreciably , but the organic and biochemical components should come early in the course so that exam ples involving organic molecules can be incorporated . The Committee felt that this course represents the barest minimum and that only a very few agriculture and natural resource maj ors have this as their sole requirement . Serious consideration should be given to adding a second course as the eventual minimum for all students in agriculture and natural resources. Certain majors will require even more chemistry . It was recommended that the second course be regarded as a con tinuation of the organic, biochemical, and analytical components of the frrst course and that it comprise about eight semester credits. Thus, students who took both courses would have completed the equivalent of: ⢠A standard one-semester course in general and inorganic chem istry. ⢠A one-semester course in qualitative and quantitative analysis. ⢠Sufficient physical chemistry to serve as a basis for the analytical and biochemical components. ⢠An introduction to biochemistry .
PHYSI CA L SC I EN C ES AN D MATH EMATI CS 73 These courses should not be confused with survey courses but, as the Committee report stated , "provide appropriate depth for all those who need to make specific use of chemical concepts later in their ca reers. Indeed the Committee is of the opinion that they would not be inappropriate as the starting point in the professional training of chem ists, which at the present is in danger of becoming too narrowly chan nelled." From this point , the Committee felt , "the student can readily move into intermediate and advanced courses in chemistry as he needs them after taking the appropriate prerequisites in physics and mathematics." C O M M I T T E E ON P H Y S I C S The Committee on Physics surveyed 73 colleges of agriculture and found that some programs (in agriculture and natural resources) re quire no physics at all-most require from one quarter to one year, few require in excess of one year. The Committee concluded, further, there was but little enthusiasm for the courses now offered, a wish that they could be somehow different, more practical, more oriented toward the interest of the agricultural scientist , and more sympathe tically presented . It was the conviction of the physics committee "that almost every agriculture student should experience during his undergraduate train ing at least a one-year physics course that is more than a watered-down frrst course in physics for students planning to become physicists or engineers." They base their conclusion on the following reasons: ⢠More and more aspects of agriculture are emerging as quantita tive. ⢠The widespread and rapidly-expanding accessibility of computers makes familiarity with them highly desirable . ⢠Research fields and graduate education in agriculture and natural resources demand a more sophisticated background in physics than it did formerly. It was pointed out that the mathematics preparation now offered to precollege students makes feasible study of physics by more col lege students. Most applications of physics that are at the forefront of present agriculture science are accessible to any student with a work ing understanding of ordinary calculus and differential equations with perhaps a little introduction to modern algebra, probability theory, and rudimentary computer training.
74 R ichard M. Swenson The backbone of the recommended course should be fundamental physics, with a shift of emphasis as to illustrative material. Rigid body mechanics should be played down in favor of elementary fluid mech anics; the idea of thermodynamics should be emphasized more than statistical theory of heat ; radiation laws should be treated empirically rather than derived theoretically , so they could be introduced at a more elementary level . Laboratory work should include exercises with computers and per haps some biophysical and meteorological measurements. Concepts of elementary calculus should be employed regularly . C O M M ITTEE O N M A T H E M A TIC S The Committee on Mathematics placed special emphasis on the math ematical requirements of students in agriculture and natural resources ten or fifteen years from now. It pointed out that , even now, the ap plication of mathematics here is highly sophisticated and for this reason they recommend requirements that are heavy compared to those now imposed . The Committee further emphasized that the spectrum of mathematical topics now beginning to be used in agriculture and na tural resources is broader than in any other field except, possibly, engineering. The following schedules of mathematical instruction were recom mended as goals to be attained in the next ten to fifteen years : Course Name Recommended for Curricula in (Semester Hours) Education Technology Science Introductory Calculus (3-4) X X X Multivariable Calculus (3-4) X X Probability (3) X X X Linear Algebra (3-4) X Theory and Techniques of Calculus (3-4) X Statistical Inference (3) X X Introduction to Computing (3-4) X X Principles of Programming ( 1 ) X Total hours 9-11 15-18 1 9-22
PHYSI CAL SC I EN CES AN D MATH EMATI CS 75 The Committee recognized the difficulties to be faced in reaching these goals, especially in view of the fact that it is rare to find more than nine semester-credits of college mathematics required for the bachelor's degree in agriculture and natural resources, �nd that it is common to find six or less. The following obstacles must be sur mounted : ⢠Many faculty members do not yet appreciate the value of mathe- matics. ⢠The curriculum is already crowded . ⢠Many students have weak high school training in mathematics. ⢠Mathematics is not used as effectively as it could be in most substantive and supporting courses. It was suggested that colleges of agriculture and natural resources stipulate that by 1 972 students entering four-year curricula must have taken four years of college-preparatory mathematics. The Committee j ustified its extensive recommended requirement on the fact that during the twentieth century probability theory, statistics, linear programming, and other branches of mathematics that have many applications in the biological , management , and social sciences have developed rapidly . The Committee report stated : Probability theory provides mathematical models for the study of events with chance outcomes. It is the mathematical foundation for genetics and also for statistical theory . Statistics yields methods to summarize large collections of data and to draw conclusions from observations about events with chance outcome. Many important de velopments in statistics have been stimulated by problems in agricul ture and natural resources. Linear programming provides techniques for solving many optimization problems which cannot be solved in any other way ; for example, the formulation of a feed mixture which has specified nutritional values and minimum cost , the allocation of farm resources to maximize profits, or the allocation of natural re sources to maximize public benefit. Linear programming in turn rests on the basic concepts of vector spaces and linear algebra. Some opti mization problems can be solved , however, only by the older tech niques of differential calculus. The Committee pointed out that an increased mathematics require ment would actually improve the efficiency of undergraduate train-
76 R ichard M. Swenson ing by eliminating the repeated need for including instruction in techniques of mathematics, statistics, and computing in upper-division specialty courses. They estimated that "the contact hours to cover the desired topics in many areas of upper-division instruction can be reduced by at least fifty percent," if the students were adequately prepared before-hand . The Committee report itself gives a topic outline for each of the recommended courses and provides an interesting section in which direct and indirect uses of the various mathematical functions in agri culture and natural resources are listed in detail. SUM M A RY The recommendations of the committees, in the aggregate, include a minimum of 1 8 credits of chemistry, 8 credits of physics, and 9 to 22 credits of mathematics (depending on the curriculum)-a total of 35 to 48 semester credits. This represents a 65 to 1 40 percent increase over the average number of credits now taken by students in agricul tural science and agricultural technology. One can anticipate that recommended increases of this magnitude will be met initially with strong resistance from the administrators and faculty . However, it is my plea that we do not dismiss the entire project as "unrealistic." There is much here of great value. · I am favorably impressed with the attitude and spirit of coopera tion among the people from the basic sciences. As individuals and professionals, they are dedicating their time and resources to the im provement of undergraduate teaching in the basic sciences. Many recognize the value that would result from the use of examples and illustrations that clearly have relevance in agriculture, natural re sources, biology , and everyday life . However, they need help in secur ing source materials, appropriate examples and orientation to the developments that are taking place. Recommended course content must be brought to the attention of the responsible people in the chemistry, physics, and math departments.
PHYS I CAL SCI E N C ES AND MAT H E MATI CS 77 I F . YATES BO R D E N I Under the auspices of the Commission three committees were consti tuted to evaluate the present situation, trends and future needs of physics, chemistry and mathematics education in conjunction with the anticipated future educational requirements in baccalaureate pro grams in agriculture and natural resources. They were to make recom mendations concerning courses, course content and orientation, instructional methods and materials, implementation and other re lated matters. A R E A S O F G EN E R A L A G R E E M E N T Each of the reports stressed the rapidly changing educational environ ment of agriculture and natural resources and of physics, chemistry, and mathematics and the need for frequent review to meet changing needs. After all, an agriculturist can validly contemplate mathematics education only by being aware of the concurrent changes in mathe matics education. For this reason one can expect effective results only if the group is composed of up-to-date representatives of the various d isciplines. That educators with such d iverse backgrounds as those participating in the conference could reach agreement on many points lends support to a belief that common goals in collegiate edu cation do exist. Major areas of agreement follow: ⢠There is an increasing demand to quantify courses, curricula and d isciplines that are related to science and technology. ⢠Special courses with appropriate orientation and topic coverage should be offered for students in agriculture and natural resources, but these can also be considered appropriate for students in other biological or life science curricula. ⢠Courses given for agriculture and natural resources students should not be terminal, nor diluted , nonrigorous analogs of basic courses in mathematics, physics or chemistry. ⢠Materials pertinent to such courses are at present not adequate and measures should be taken to rectify this situation as rapidly as possible.
78 F. Yates Borden ⢠Communications between the agriculture faculty and faculties in physics, chemistry and mathematics should be strengthened. ⢠Continuing education in physics, chemistry and mathematics for agriculture faculty is a problem for which many solutions exist , but which can in fact be solved only when substantial emphasis is placed on faculty participation . ⢠Although secondary school programs are being strengthened in the basic sciences and mathematics, the qualifications of students entering agriculture and natural resources curricula are likely to be more diverse than in the past . With regard to special courses it was generally agreed that courses for majors in chemistry, physics and mathematics would not often be appropriate . Service courses for nonmajors could and should be de signed for students in biological and life science areas, including those in agriculture and natural resources. Such courses should not be ter minal, so that students might continue with the intermediate and advanced courses without serious penalty . They would differ from the courses for maj ors mainly in orientation, supporting materials and frame of reference. Topic coverage and prerequisites would be substantially the same. Continuing education of agriculture faculty was regarded of ex treme importance in order to keep them up to date on changing pat terns in mathematics, physics and chemistry courses and to strengthen their capacity to use mathematics, chemistry and physics material freely in their own courses. Continuing education of physical sciences faculty in the disciplines their courses support was also deemed im portant as, of course, was fluent communication between the two faculty groups. PH Y S IC S The Committee on Physics agreed that a one-year course in physics was adequate for students in agriculture. The course should be one specifically designed for them and would apply equally well for stu dents in other biological sciences. The course , although distinct from a course for physics majors, must not be terminal nor superficial. It must be based on a working knowledge of calculus and preferably a background, not necessarily comprehensive, in modern algebra, prob ability theory and computer science . The main differences would be
PHYSI CAL SCI E N C ES AND MAT H E MATI CS 79 in the orientation and supporting materials. More emphasis would be placed on fluid mechanics, thermodynamics and elementary radiation than is usually true of a first course. Bonafide examples pertinent to the biological sciences should be used, although such material has not yet been assembled . The course in physics should develop in the stu dent the "conviction that quantitative thinking in terms of a small group of widely applicable theoretical generalizations is a technique that is widely applicable." As for concrete action, it has been proposed that pertinent source materials be developed as rapidly as possible and instruction modules be prepared to facilitate implementing the various recommendations. C H E M I S T R Y The Committee defined a full-year course of I 0 semester hours in chemistry as minimum. The course would encompass the fundamen tal aspects of inorganic, organic, physical and analytical chemistry, but it should be neither a survey course nor a terminal course. A second course already outlined in the literature* was considered to be desirable in most curricula, but chief emphasis was placed on defining the first course and outlining the general topic areas of a two-course sequence. The frrst course lectures center upon four areas: ( 1 ) atomic theory, bonding, nature of molecules, gases, solids and liquids, (2) organic compounds, (3) chemical energetics, and (4) de scriptive inorganic chemistry . The practical applications would cover a broad spectrum of topics from the areas designated earlier and should be strongly experimental in emphasis. A student who took the two chemistry courses recommended by the Committee would have the equivalent of a one-semester course each in general introductory chemistry, organic chemistry, and quan titative analysis. In view of the physical chemistry and biochemistry included in the recommended courses, the student would also be well-armed to persue intermediate and advanced courses in any of these areas. The Committee considered some of the problems facing present and future teaching of chemistry as related to agriculture students, faculty and curricula . Generally , their recommendations were very *Everhardt, W. H. 1 967. Newsletter of advisory council on college chemistry. May. Dept. of Chemistry, Stanford University, California. 94304
80 F. Yates Borden similar to those made by the physics group, but they did emphasize the need for deans and faculty of colleges of agriculture to recognize the need for continuing education of faculty . Numerous ways to im plement continuing education were considered. M AT H EM A T I C S The recommendations in the report by the Committee on the Under graduate Program in Mathematics (C U P M )t were critically evaluated by the Commission's Committee on Mathematics. The courses de fined by C U P M were designed as a basic undergraduate program in mathematics, providing in addition a general service to other depart ments. For a number of reasons, given in detail in their report, the Committee on Mathematics strongly advised the adoption of a num ber of the C U P M courses as requirements in the four-year B.S. cur ricula in colleges of agriculture and natural resources. The agriculture curricula are categorically designated as education, technology and science-business programs are considered to be ap propriately placed in either the technology or science curricula. All programs would require a course in introductory calculus and in probability . Other courses specified for one or more of the three categories include multivariable calculus, linear algebra, theory and techniques of calculus and statistical inference. Two courses in com puter science were indicated by the Committee to complete the selec tion. (See table opposite. ) Although - the semester-hour requirements appear to be very sub stantial, many specific curricula already installed in colleges of agri culture and natural resources have requirements nearly as demanding. It should also be pointed out that a number of these courses are often not considered part of the formal mathematics requirements. In the traditional classification of mathematics vs. nonmathematics courses, the education category requires only 3-4 semester hours of mathe matics; technology, only 6-8 ; and science, only I 2- 1 6. The Committee emphasized the need for mathematical ability at the level indicated for the bachelor of science I 0-1 5 years. Judged by present standards in secondary school and in agriculture curricula, tcommittee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics. A general curricu lum in mathematics for colleges. A report to the mathematical association of America. 1965 . CUPM , P.O. Box 1 024, Berkeley , Calif.
PHYSI CAL SCI EN CES AN D MAT H E MATI CS 8 1 Course Name Recommended for Curricula in (Semester Hours) Education Technology Science Introductory Calculus (3-4) X X X Multivariable Calculus (3-4) X X Probability (3) X X X Linear Algebra (3-4) X Theory and Techniques of Calculus (3-4) X Statistical Inference (3) X X Introduction to Computing (3-4) X X Principles of Programming ( 1 ) X Total Hours 9-1 1 1 5-1 8 1 9-22 this program can be installed by 1 980 only if implementation were to begin immediately . The Committee confirmed the need for mathe matics at a reasonably sophisticated level in the subject areas charac teristic of agriculture and natural resources, but pointed out that undergraduate courses seldom make full or efficient use of mathema tics, even when they purport to be quantitatively oriented . One of the major obstacles to implementation of the recommended mathematics is the faculty of agriculture colleges. A number of these faculty members do not understand the applicability of mathematics to their areas of interest, a value that can be recognized only if em phasis is placed on continuing education of faculty and in a general and substantial increase in mathematics training employed in the graduate programs. G E N E R A L P H Y S IC A L S C I E N C E S Two working groups, one on integrated physical science courses and one on physical science and mathematics, were also formed . The latter recommended that no new special courses be required of every student in agriculture and agreed in principle with the mathematics, chemistry and physics committees' reports, suggesting that the chem istry and physics courses be specified in greater detail at some later time. The working group on integrated physical science courses in es sence strongly advised against the general use of integrated physical
82 George A. G ries sciences course as substitutes for specific courses in mathematics and sciences. Two reasons cited in support were the actual failure of such courses to meet their objectives and that, in practice, no time savings have been realized . The group did, however, recommend that con tinued effort be expended in devising and implementing such a course, at least experimentally . G E O R G E A. G R I ES Everyone gripes-agricultural and natural resource educators are no exception. One of the favorite targets of their complaint is the nature of the courses in chemistry , physics, and mathematics available to their students. The old courses designed especially for "aggies" were watered down and too often assigned to the poorest instructor in the department. On the other hand, the standard courses for majors, while sufficiently rigorous, lack relevance and hence motivation for the agricultural students. Examples usually are drawn from theoreti cal aspects of the discipline 01 from engineering. Agricultural or bio logical illustrations are seldom, if ever, used-primarily because of the biological illiteracy of the professor. The ability of the instructor in a physical science or mathematics course to relate his discipline to the interests of the student of applied biology would in no way reduce the responsibility of the professor of agriculture or natural resources to convince the student of the essential role of the physical sciences and mathematics in his educa tion. This can best be done by demonstration during his own instruc tion; if he fails to take advantage of every situation that allows this, he has failed in his responsibility . Dissatisfaction with the present offerings in mathematics and the physical sciences was forcefully presented in the reports of Commis sion's committees on the basic science training needs of students in the several agricultural disciplines in 1 966. This was one reason why the Commission established separate panels in chemistry, physics, and mathematics in 1 967 . These panels were charged to make recom mendations as to training needs in these basic disciplines for students who would be leaders in the agricultural professions ten to fifteen years in the future. They were invited to consider subject matter, teaching procedures, sequencing of topics or courses or any other
PHYSI CAL SCI EN CES AN D MATH EMAT I CS 83 aspect of the educational process they wished. Specific suggestions on how their recommendations could be implemented were re quested . They were not asked to consider the curriculum as a whole. All of the committee reports recognize that curricula in agriculture and natural resources have made significant changes during the last decade in an effort more nearly to reflect the needs of the industries. Most marked of changes is an increased emphasis on basic principles at the expense of skills, which have a tendency to become obsolete. The need for greater sophistication in the future, even for the termi nal bachelor's programs, is noted , dictated by the increased applica tion of modern technology. The reports also point out that rapid increases in knowledge has necessitated a change in instructional pro grams and that, since agricultural and natural resource curricula must be based on sound modern concepts and principles, educators in the applied sciences will be forced to keep abreast of these changes. The development of strong nonterminal courses in the basic sciences, specifically designed for those in the biological disciplines, depends primarily on the availability of teachers with insight and interest. The need for source materials on the biological application of basic mathe matical, physical and chemical concepts was recognized in each of the reports. The Chemistry Panel suggested a minimum of a one-year course ( 1 0 credit hours) for students in all agricultural and natural resource curricula, regardless of their educational goals. This course should have a strong experimental orientation, should clearly show the im pact of modern chemistry on society, and should present an adequate overview of the whole field of chemistry. The early introduction of concepts of organic and biochemistry would assist in making the course more relevant and give an essential background for students not electing further courses. It should not be a terminal offering and should presume a high school preparation of at least three years of mathematics. Suggestions for laboratory topics were given. The need for a sourcebook or other resource for chemistry teachers without adequate background in biological, agricultural, or natural resource disciplines is emphasized . The Panel suggested that the second course in chemistry should be similar in content to the course in "biorgana lytical" chemistry currently being offered at U .C.L.A. Students in science options should be able to proceed directly from this course to advanced offerings in chemistry. The report of the Physics Panel shows but little enthusiasm for present introductory courses in physics. The members suggested that it should be possible to provide a substantial course that is both prac-
84 George A. Gries tical and sympathetically presented without catering to the interests of the physics major or the engineers. It should be of such depth and based on sufficient competence in mathematics to allow students to move into conventional courses at no great cost in academic effort . Such a course would appeal not only to students in such applied bio logical disciplines as agriculture, natural resources, and the health related fields but also to those in basic biology and in the liberal arts. The present dearth of competent physicists who are literate in bi ology could be overcome in part by the preparation of source mate rials upon which the teacher could draw. The Panel recommends that at least two pilot projects be initiated to develop teaching modules and to try out courses similar to the one they envision. The Panel on Mathematics began its report with an analysis of the needs of the agricultural and natural resources student of ten to fif teen years hence, as he prepares himself for the industry as it will be during much of his career. The panelists visualized that students in agricultural and resource education, technology (production, manage ment, and business) and science will all need greater sophistication than they now have. The members of the panel suggested that mathe matical courses similar to those described in the General Curriculum Report of the Commission on the Undergraduate Program in Mathe matics would be entirely satisfactory units from which meaningful sequences could be built. They suggested that minimal mathematical training for all students in agriculture and natural resources should include introductory calculus, probability, and a course in program ming or computing. Students in the technological curricula should, additionally, have work in multivariable calculus and statistical infer ence, and students in science options should have courses in those areas and in linear algebra and theory and techniques of calculus. Total semester credit-hours range from 9- 1 1 to 1 9-22 in the different options. The Panel recognized that there will be substantial resistance to the incorporation of so much additional mathematics into an already crowded schedule but believed that there would be an equiv alent saving of time and effort presenting technical subject matter to students with stronger mathematical background. This, of course, implies relatively high mathematical literacy among those who teach agriculture and natural resources courses. The Panel recommends the development of resource materials and suggests ways and means of both developing them and of providing needed training to mathematics and applied biology faculty members.
5 Social Sciences CA R RO L L V. H ESS American communities are today faced with massive social prob lems. The annual level of investment in the development of technol ogy has reached the 23 billion dollar level in the United States. Seven billion of this is investment by the private sector; the remaining 1 6 billion represents public investment in technology. Investments of this magnitude generate enormous changes in capital input supplies and engender growth in goods and services of all kinds. As firms operating in this capitalistic society respond to huge injections of technology, there are increased specialization, economies to scale, and marked structural changes within the economy. Many communities are unprepared to meet these massive changes. As one measure of public concern, witness the fact that in 1 946 the federal government spent 894 million dollars to help local govern ments augment their public programs. By 1 966, this figure reached over 1 4 billion dollars, a 1 6-fold increase in two decades. A myriad of community needs have to be faced-equitable taxes ; educational expansion and relevancy ; adequate local government ; 85
