Encouraging Innovation in Locating and Characterizing Underground Utilities (2009)

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82A P P E N D I X A Annotated BibliographyThe references in each category (reports/books, papers, arti- cles, and so forth) are sorted by year in descending order, and within each year by author in alphabetical order. Organizations and Major Research Projects [1] Common Ground Alliance (CGA) http://www.commongroundalliance.com The Common Ground Alliance (CGA) is a member- driven association dedicated to ensuring public safety, environmental protection, and the integrity of services by promoting effective damage prevention practices. [2] Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) http://www.epsrc.ac.uk/default.htm The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council is the United Kingdom’s funding agency for research and training in engineering and the physical sciences. [3] European Street Works Research Advisory Council (ESWRAC) http://www.ESWRAC.org This organization is a group of European utilities, cities, and transport organizations that promotes research in identifying buried utilities. [4] Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) http://www.ferc.gov FERC is an independent agency that regulates the interstate transmission of natural gas, oil, and electricity. [5] Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Trans- fer (FLC) http://www.federallabs.org/store/greenbook/The Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Transfer is a nationwide network of federal laboratories that provides the forum to develop strategies and opportunities for linking laboratory mission technologies and expertise with the marketplace. [6] Geospatial Information and Technology Association (GITA) http://www.gita.org/ GITA is a nonprofit educational association serving the global geospatial community. [7] GIGA http://www.osys.co.uk/download/gigaproject_paper.pdf GIGA was a research study aimed at improving ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to locate buried pipes or other structures. The Thalès group, Tracto- Technik, Ingegneria dei Sistemi SpA (IDS), and Groupement européen de recherche gazière (GERG, European gas research group) partnered with the Research Division of Gaz de France. [8] Mapping the Underworld (MTU) http://www.mappingtheunderworld.ac.uk This website is for the EPSRC research project aimed at locating buried utilities. [9] Underground Utility and Leak Locators Association (UULLA) http://www.uulla.org UULLA is a nonprofit association of firms and indivi- duals involved in providing underground utility and leak detection services to municipalities, private property owners, industry, engineers, architects and others. [10] U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS)

83http://ops.dot.gov/ Their top priority is preventing excavation damage. OPS has developed a comprehensive damage prevention program to protect underground facilities. [11] Visualising Integrated Information on Buried Assets to Reduce Streetworks (VISTA) http://www.vistadtiproject.org VISTA is a United Kingdom project to bring together existing paper and digital records with data from satellite and ground-based positioning systems and thus create a 3-D map of pipes and cables buried underground. Utility Locating References listed in this section provide information on how to find utilities, including their horizontal position and depth. Methods and technologies for utility locating can also be found in these references, as well as existing practices and recommendations. Reports/Books [12] American Water Works Association Research Founda- tion and Gas Technology Institute. Underground Facil- ity Pinpointing—Finding a Precise Locating System for Buried Underground Facilities, Phase II Ongoing Research #3133, 2008. American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF) and Gas Technology Institute (GTI) evaluate the use of several emerging technologies in locating and pin- pointing buried water mains. The evaluation includes pipe materials, pipe diameters, burial depths, soil environments, other issues directly relevant to water distribution networks, and field studies to evaluate recent advancements made in ground-penetrating radar. [13] American Water Works Association Research Founda- tion. Development of a Digital Leak Detector, Ongoing Research #404, 2008. More than 500,000 leaks on buried gas distribution system piping are incorrectly pinpointed each year. AWWARF and GTI will develop and eventually commercialize a product capable of precisely locating pinhole leaks in distribution sys- tems. If successful, this will result in less costly repair due to both early warning and more precise location of leaks and therefore smaller, less expensive, and less invasive excavation. [14] Common Ground Alliance. CGA Best Practices Version 4. March 2007, 102 pp. A guide to underground utility damage prevention best practices that covers nine areas: (1) planning and design, (2) one-call center, (3) location and marking, (4) excava-tion, (5) mapping, (6) compliance, (7) public education, (8) reporting and evaluation, and (9) homeland security. This version includes four new practices, the Damage Information Reporting Tool field form, and updated membership information. [15] Ashdown, C. Mains Location Equipment: A State of the Art Review and Future Research Needs, Final Report. UKWIR 01/WM/06/1, United Kingdom Water Industry Research, 2006, 39 pp. The report examines the equipment currently used for the location of buried utility services and reports upon perfor- mance, based upon a limited assessment carried out on two trial sites. The actual performance achieved is compared with the expressed requirements of the water utilities. The need for performance specifications and a better under- standing of the limitations of current equipment is dis- cussed together with the needs for future research and development. [16] Bakhtar, K. Demonstration of BakhtarRadar Buried Util- ity Detection and 3-Dimensional Imaging Capabilities. PowerPoint Presentation, 2006, 32 slides. The presentation explains how the system works, concept origination, and the innovation in the concept (software, hardware, operation modes). An example of buried pipes detection is shown. Work was funded by the Naval Weapons Station in Seal Beach, California. [17] Gas Technology Institute. Underground Facility Pin- pointing. OTD-06/0001, Operations Technology Devel- opment (ODT), 2006, 57 pp. Research was conducted on a wide variety of technologies used by utilities to locate underground pipes and facilities. The report reviews electromagnetic locators, GPR, and alter- native locating technologies: (1) Bakhtar Associates— EarthRadar, (2) Witten Technologies, (3) Geonics Limited, (4) Continental Industries—e-line locator, (5) Harris Tech- nologies, (6) electrical conductivity object locator, (7) Geo- Radar, (8) capacitive tomography, (9) acoustic, (10) infrared thermography, (11) and emerging technologies. [18] Gas Technology Institute. Bakhtar Associates Earth- Radar. Underground Facility Pinpointing, 2006, 8 pp. While standard GPR units use impulse radar, the Earth- Radar system uses forced resonance radar (a proprietary system developed by Bakhtar Associates). This system allows precise location information (i.e., high accuracy on the centimeter level) to be attached to data without the need for the grid scans and route planning. The Earth- Radar system has been demonstrated three times through- out the Underground Facility Pinpointing Program. The system was able to positively locate the intended targets in all three demonstrations. [19] Environment Research Foundation. Methods for Cost- Effective Rehabilitation of Private Lateral Sewers. 02CTS5, Water, Alexandria, Va., 2006, 436 pp.

84One chapter in the final report reviews currently used meth- ods to locate and inspect small sewer pipes (sewer laterals). [20] United Kingdom Water Industry Research. Minimising Street Works Disruption: Buried Asset Data Collection and Exchange Field Trials. 2006. This report details the results of several projects in the U.K. (North London and Yorkshire) that evaluated various methods of data capture for buried assets, including tradi- tional methods such as tape measures and trundle wheels as well as the latest satellite survey equipment. It also looks at the current methods of exchanging and collating utility asset data used by contractors to the water industry. [21] Hereth, M., B. Selig, K. Leewis, and J. Zurcher. Com- pendium of Practices and Current and Emerging Tech- nologies to Prevent Mechanical Damage to Natural Gas and Hazardous Liquids Transmission Pipelines. GRI 8747, March 2006, 119 pp. This report provides a state of the art review of commercial, new, and emerging technologies and practices for the pre- vention of mechanical damage. A review of past and current practices, as well as current and emerging technologies, is also included. [22] United Kingdom Water Industry Research. Underground Asset Location: Review of Current Technology. 2005. This report presents high-level requirements for under- ground asset location and summarizes the current state of the art in the location of underground assets. It recognizes that the majority of effort in this area is focused on the optimization of these technologies and that there is little innovation in terms of new sensors and, therefore, reviews other disciplines as diverse as medicine, defense, archaeol- ogy, and space to identify a broad spectrum of new tech- nologies that could potentially be harnessed to address this issue. [23] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. Digital Mapping of Buried Pipelines with a Dual Array Sys- tem. Final Status Report, Dec. 2004, 1 p. Witten Technologies Inc. has developed a noninvasive system for detecting, mapping, and inspecting steel and plastic pipelines. The system combines measurements from ultra-wideband radar and electromagnetic induction arrays with precise positioning and advanced image processing. This is accomplished by development of a wideband array of 3-component sensors and software, fabrication and testing of electromagnetic induction (EMI) sensors, integration of EMI and radar sensors, and devel- opment of an onboard transmitter. Research duration: 10/01/2002–12/31/2004. [24] Read, G. F. Sewers: Replacement and New Construction. Elsevier, 2004, 576 pp. This is a detailed guide to the management and construction of new sewer systems. The importance of proper site prepa- ration and management is emphasized, and detailed guid-ance is given to preconstruction investigation as well as to managing traffic and public relations during the construc- tion period. A chapter is dedicated to site investigation and mapping of buried assets. [25] Common Ground Alliance. CGA Review of NTSB Rec- ommendation P-97-16/P-97-17. Feb 2003, 49 pp. A task group within the R&D Committee of the CGA reviewed the compendium of locating equipment as a basis for addressing National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommendations. The group revised existing criteria for evaluating locating equipment and developed a list of recommendations. [26] Common Ground Alliance. CGA Review of NTSB Rec- ommendation P-97-18, P-97-17. Feb. 2003, 50 pp. The recommendation focused on the ability of commercially available technologies to meet state requirements for locate accuracy and hand-dig tolerance zones. The committee researched each state’s legal requirements for accuracy of facility locates. The committee identified 42 states with locate accuracy requirements. The state laws governing the accu- racy of a locate varied widely, but in general there were between 18 in. and 24 in. measured on each side of the utility. [27] Jeong, H. S., C. A. Arboleda, D. M. Abraham, D. W. Halpin, and L. E. Bernold. Imaging and Locating Buried Utilities. FHWA/IN/JTRP-2003/12, Report to Indiana Department of Transportation, Joint Transportation Research Program, Oct. 2003, 238 pp. The state-of-the-art and the state-of-the-practice imaging technologies that have potential for being applied in locating underground utilities were identified through literature review and case studies, and the conditions under which use of these technologies are most appropriate were analyzed. Based on the characterizations of imaging technologies, a decision tool named IMAGTECH was developed in order to provide site engineers/technicians with a user-friendly tool in selecting appropriate imaging technologies. Quantitative data based on questionnaire surveys to state DOTs and SUE providers were used to present comprehensive insight into the various aspects of the rapidly growing market in SUE. A multimedia educational tool was also developed to facilitate a better understanding of underground utility locating sys- tems by the many in the construction domain, particularly entry-level engineers who are relatively unfamiliar with these technologies. [28] Chapman, D. N., J. B. Costello, and C. D. F. Rogers. Report on Asset Location and Condition Assessment. UKWIR 02/WM/12/1, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, 2002, 36 pp. This report reviews the techniques that are currently available for underground asset location and for the condition assess- ment of the buried infrastructure. It has been produced following significant revision and expansion of a review

85produced as part of the EPSRC Engineering Programme Network in Trenchless Technology (NETTWORK). NETTWORK aims to bring all relevant U.K. academics and industrialists together to synthesize knowledge in the broad field of trenchless technologies, agree on the research needs, disseminate this information as widely as possible, and formulate research proposals to address these needs. This review of pipeline location technology and condition assessment aims to provide details of the essential technology that is currently available for use in practice, as opposed to citation of case histories of the use of the technology. [29] United Kingdom Water Industry Research. Multi-Utility Buried Pipes and Appurtenances Location Workshop. Report Ref. No. 02/WM/12/2, London, 2002, 72 pp. Group of experts from the U.K., the U.S., and the Nether- lands reviewed state-of-the-art technologies for locating of buried pipes, developed cost and performance specifi- cations for locating tools, addressed limitations of tech- nologies, and identified future technology development and research needs. [30] Deb, A. K. (ed.). New Techniques for Precisely Locating Buried Infrastructure. American Water Works Associa- tion Research Foundation, Oct. 2001, 158 pp. This study evaluated several technologies for locating under- ground assets, although they are not commonly used in the water industry (electromagnetic, ground-penetrating radar, sonic, and acoustic). The report provides guidance for water utilities to use in selecting the most appropriate technique for locating buried assets where conditions are difficult and accuracy is critical. [31] Lanka, M. A Fuzzy Logic Based Methodology to Manage Uncertainty in Underground Utility Location. M.S. The- sis, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, La., 2000. This study examined means of depicting the uncertainty of utility position based on the type and quality of the infor- mation available. [32] Sterling, R. L. Utility Locating Technologies: A Summary of Responses to a Statement of Need. Federal Laboratory Consortium Special Reports Series No. 9, FLC, Feb. 2000, 53 pp. This report documented the results of a search for utility locating technologies under development and the extent to which the research under way could meet the needs for util- ity locating in practice. [33] Sterling, R. L. Utility Locating Technologies: Statement of Need. Federal Laboratory Consortium Special Reports Series No. 9, FLC, June 1999, 19 pp. This document was prepared to outline utility locating prob- lems in practice and the potential market for improved solu- tions. It was used to solicit information from federallaboratories, universities, and other research groups about ongoing or potential research in the field. [34] Brouwer, J., and K. Helbig. Shallow High-Resolution Reflection Seismics. Elsevier Science Limited, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1998, 391 pp. The book covers all aspects of acquisition, processing, and interpretation of shallow reflection seismic data for geotechnical and environmental purposes. [35] Simonson, K. M. Statistical Considerations in Designing Tests of Mine Detection Systems: I Measures Related to the Probability of Detection Test Design. Sandia Report, SAND98-1769/1, Sandia National Laboratories, 1998, 28 pp. One of the primary metrics used to gauge the performance of mine detection systems is PD, the probability of detecting an actual mine that is encountered by the sensor. In this report, statistical issues and techniques that are relevant to the estimation of PD are discussed. Appropriate methods are presented for summarizing the performance of a single detection system, for comparing different systems, and for determining the sample size (number of target mines) required for a desired degree of precision. References are provided to pertinent sources within the extensive literature on statistical estimation and experimental design. A com- panion report addresses the estimation of detection system false alarm rates. [36] Simonson, K. M. Statistical Considerations in Designing Tests of Mine Detection Systems: II Measures Related to the False Alarm Rate Test Design. Sandia Report, SAND98-1769/2, Sandia National Laboratories, 1998. The rate at which a mine detection system falsely identifies man-made or natural clutter objects as mines is referred to as the system’s false alarm rate (FAR). In this report, an overview is given of statistical methods appropriate for the analysis of data relating to FAR. Techniques are presented for determining a suitable size for the clutter collection area, for summarizing the performance of a single sensor, and for comparing different sensors. For readers requiring more thorough coverage of the topics discussed, references to the statistical literature are provided. [37] Rush, W. F., J. E. Huebler, and V. Tamosaitis. Identifica- tion of Plastic Pipe Location Technology through a Federal Laboratory Research and Development Contest. GRI- 97/0006, March 1997, 74 pp. The objective of this study was to find out if any current federal laboratory technology can locate buried plastic pipe better than tracer wire. The report focuses on the essential features of identified technologies, while infor- mation on more extensive sources for each is included in the appendixes. [38] Grau, R. H. User’s Guide: Ground-Penetrating Radar. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., July 1996, 30 pp.

86Description of GPR used to determine the thickness of dif- ferent layers of a pavement structure and the location of water and sewer lines under a roadway system is provided. Applicability, benefits, limitations, costs, and recom- mended uses of the technology are discussed. [39] Hadey, A. D., and V. Hey. Acoustic Pipe Tracer Devel- opment. GRI-96/0446, Gas Research Institute, Chicago, Ill., Aug. 1996, 59 pp. Development and commercialization of the acoustic pipe tracer technology for locating polyethylene pipes under- ground is summarized. [40] King, J. D. Assessment of 3M Electronic Marker System for Locating Underground Plastic Gas Pipe. Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Tex., 1996, 32 pp. This system makes use of miniature electronic markers that are attached to the pipe prior to installation. The system was evaluated in the laboratory and at six field sites to determine performance and suitability for locating buried plastic gas pipe. [41] Cribbs, R. W., and S. Knapp. New Concepts for the Loca- tion of Underground Plastic Natural Gas Pipes. GRI- 95/0494, Gas Research Institute, Dec. 1995, Chicago, Ill., 39 pp. A system to detect and locate plastic pipe from 1/2 in. to 4 in. or more in diameter in all soils, in all conditions, to a depth of four feet would be developed. Different tech- nologies would be investigated: (1) ultra-wideband swept- frequency microwave radar, (2) chirp ultrasound for use in soils where the radar attenuation is too high, and (3) ultra- high-speed signal processing. [42] Podney, W. Development of a Magnetic Telescope for Evaluating Integrity of Buried Steel Gas Piping from the Surface. GRI-94/0220, Sept. 1995, 54 pp. The objective was to develop an instrument that uses highly sensitive, superconductive, magnetic sensors to evaluate integrity of buried gas piping from the surface, through a two meters overburden. [43] Tranbarger, O., J. L. Fisher, R. E. Beissner, and B. J. Zook. Fusion of Two Electromagnetic Field Sensor Tech- nologies for Application to the Location of Buried Gas Pipes. Gas Research Institute, July 1995, 105 pp. Feasibility of GPR and Eddy current (EC) technologies to locate pipes was investigated. GPR produced images of 4-in. polyethylene (PE) pipe down to 3 ft and of 2-in. PE pipe to a depth of 2 ft. With EC technology, the edges of backfilled pipe trenches were detectable, and plastic pipes could be detected at shallow depths in high conductivity soils. [44] Allen, J. W. Geophysical Background and As-Built Tar- get Characteristics. U.S. Department of Energy, Sept. 1994, 75 pp.Geophysical measurement techniques for detecting and defining cultural and environmental targets were docu- mented and evaluated in a testing facility in Rabbit Valley, Colorado. The techniques include surface magnetics, air- borne magnetics, induction electromagnetics, very low fre- quency electromagnetics, time-domain electromagnetics, airborne electromagnetics, resistivity/induced polarization, and GPR. [45] Meloy, J. D. Precision Gas Pipeline Location—A Tech- nology Study. PR-215-9130, Pipeline Research Council International, Incorporated, 1994, 40 pp. This study was undertaken to survey and evaluate the tech- nology available to accurately determine the position of submerged or buried gas transmission pipelines, and to assess the applicability of some of the emerging technolo- gies. The objectives were to increase accuracy and reliability while reducing the cost of surveys. [46] Wilkey, P. L. Survey of the State of the Art in Near-Shore Pipeline Location and Burial Assessment. GRI-91/0044, Argonne National Lab and Gas Research Institute, Nov. 1991, 14 pp. State-of-the-art methods for locating pipelines in shallow water (less than 15 ft) and for determining and monitoring their burial depths were evaluated. [47] Thain, W. E. Determination of the Best Ground Pene- trating Radar Source Signal Type for the Accurate Loca- tion of Underground Utilities. NCEL-CR-88-013, Sept. 1988, 247 pp. Four types of GPR systems were tested. The frequency- domain GPR based on a stepped-frequency design pro- vided the highest performance capabilities. [48] Bigl, S. R. Locating Buried Utilities. CRREL-SR-85-14, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, N.H., Sept. 1985, 54 pp. This report describes how to operate buried-utility locators and identifies the uses and limitations of locators. The scope is limited to locators using the principles of magnetometry. [49] Bigl, S. R., K. S. Henry, and S. A. Arcone. Detection of Buried Utilities: Review of Available Methods and a Comparative Field Study. CRREL, Rep 84-31, Dec. 1984, 43 pp. Comparative field tests of eleven locators using these three operating methods were conducted in Hanover, New Hampshire, and eight of these were further tested at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York, and the Stewart Army Subpost, Newburgh, New York. [50] Roberts, W. E. Location of Underground Objects. ECRC/ M-953, Electricity Council Research Centre, Capen- hurst, United Kingdom, Aug. 1976, 16 pp. The principles by which various locating instruments oper- ate are categorized and briefly described with comments

87about their limitations and suitability for underground service location. A new instrument, designed at ECRC for the detection of cables and metal pipes, is reported to be ready for field trials. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [51] Proulx, C. R., and G. N. Young. Achieving a More Com- plete View of the Subsurface with 3-D Underground Imaging. Proc., 87th Annual Meeting of the Trans- portation Research Board, Washington, D.C., Jan. 2008, 9 pp. This paper describes 3-D underground imaging systems that deploy multiple GPR antennas on one platform to allow creation of 3-D images of the subsurface for even more complete mapping. In addition, multisensor electro- magnetic geophysical systems help image metallic targets. Relevant case histories are provided. [52] Rogers, C., N. Zembillas, A. Thomas, N. Metje, and D. Chapman. Mapping the Underworld—Enhancing Subsurface Utility Engineering Performance. Proc., 87th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., Jan. 2008, 11 pp. This paper describes research into stakeholder needs, relating it to current SUE best practice. It then describes complemen- tary U.K. research that aims to provide advances in the SUE process, via the MTU project. MTU is researching the inte- gration of multiple geophysical sensors into a single device able to detect all buried utilities without the need for proving excavations, together with positioning, data record integra- tion, and asset tagging technologies. [53] Agostini, A. Cost-Benefit Criteria for Georadar Utility Mapping Methods. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007. One of the most important problems in georadar services is to define the appropriate underground resolution level to effectively support the decision-making process about whether to dig or not. Through the analysis of georadar util- ity mapping methods in urban and industrial sites, 2-D and 3-D tomography approaches can be compared. The aim is to provide an opportunity to define technical criteria that make the georadar application successful where quality is measured in terms of fulfilling the end-user’s requirements. [54] Manacorda, G., H. Scott, M. Rameil, R. Courseille, M. Farrimond, and D. Pinchbeck. The ORFEUS Project: A Step Change in Ground Penetrating Radar Technol- ogy to Locate Buried Utilities. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007. ORFEUS is a European Commission–funded Specific Tar- geted Research Project (STREP) aimed at developing the next generation of GPR systems, which will raise the proba- bility of detecting buried assets. The project will last for 36 months and will cost €5 million (~U.S.$7 million at 2009 exchange rates). [55] Adams, G., V. Hawley, and M. Roark. A GPR Sensitivity Analysis for Locating Various Utilities. Proc., Highway Geophysics Conf 2006, St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 2006. In an effort to evaluate and demonstrate the relative advan- tages and disadvantages of 2-D and 3-D GPR technologies, a suite of GPR profiles were acquired across a specially con- structed simulated utility test site in St. Louis, Missouri. These data were processed and analyzed as conventional 2-D profiles. They were also used to generate multiple 3-D data volumes, with variable simulated acquisition param- eters. The 2-D and 3-D data were evaluated in terms of interpretability and utility. The conclusion reached is that 3-D GPR imaging technologies provide for more accurate and user-friendly interpretations and that the advantages of greater reliability and improved visualization often out- weigh the increased costs associated with acquisition, pro- cessing, and interpretation. [56] Descour, J. Volumetric Characterization of the Ground Using Seismic Velocity Tomography and Single-Hole Reflector Tracing. Proc., U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Golden, Colo., June 2006. Several relevant ground-imaging projects are described, one of which is application of this technique to delineate a century-old sewer line approximately 13.12 ft in diameter and almost 50 ft deep, in Pittsburgh, with the precision better than 6 in. [57] Ishikawa, J., M. Kiyota, and K. Furuta. Test and Evalu- ation of Japanese GPR-based AP Mine Detection Sys- tems Mounted on Robotic Vehicles. J. of Mine Action, Issue 10.1, Aug. 2006, 16 pp. Six teams from academia and industry in Japan have been developing systems equipped with both GPR and a metal detector. The short-term R&D project is developing sens- ing technology that can safely and efficiently detect AP land- mines. The goal is to develop vehicle-mounted GPR+MD dual-sensor systems that make no explicit alarm and pro- vide operators with clear subsurface images. In a medium- term R&D project, two research teams are trying to develop detectors based on the neutron analysis identifying explosives through backscattering of neutrons and detec- tion of specific energy gamma rays from capture on hydro- gen and nitrogen atoms of explosives. [58] Parker, J. Locating Buried Assets—An Overview of Tech- nical Developments. Proc., SBWWI Leakage Seminar, Coventry, United Kingdom, Society of British Water and Wastewater Industries, Nov. 2006, 33 slides. Current buried asset location tool box was reviewed: draw- ings, radio frequency locators, GPR, sondes, flexitrace tools, and CCTV. VISTA Field Trials 2006 identified extensive anomalies between asset records and surface surveys. Research projects were presented such as NUAG, MTU, VISTA, as well as GIGA, ORFEUS, and Waterpipe.

88[59] Crice, D. MASW, the Wave of the Future. J. of Environ- mental & Engineering Geophysics; Vol. 10, June 2005, pp. 77–79. Revolutionary innovations in geophysical methods develop when instruments, techniques, or software evolve to make them possible. A few of these cause dramatic changes in the types of surveys and analysis done. Past examples were shallow reflection surveys and scanning resistivity pseudo- sections. The author believes that surface wave surveys will cause a similar, perhaps extraordinary paradigm shift in geophysics because of the usefulness and interpretability of the data and the potential for dramatically higher productivity. [60] Descour, J., T. Yamamoto, and K. Murakami. Improv- ing 3D Imaging of Underground Structures. Proc., FHWA Unknown Foundation Summit, Lakewood, Colo., Nov. 2005. [61] Falorni, P., L. Capineri, L. Masotti, and G. Pinelli. 3-D Radar Imaging of Buried Utilities by Features Esti- mation of Hyperbolic Diffraction Patterns in Radar Scans. Proc., 10th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Delft, Netherlands, June 2004, 4 pp. The paper describes a processing method to extract hyper- bolic patterns generated by the time-of-flight variation in radar scans due to buried utilities. [62] Farrimond, M. The ESWRAC Initiative. Proc., ISTT No- Dig 2004 Conf., Hamburg, Germany, Nov. 2004, 9 pp. Research by UKWIR in 2000 and 2001 concluded that, at best, existing technologies had no better than a 50% success rate in identifying buried utilities. A group of utilities, cities, and transport organizations established ESWRAC to pro- mote the need for more research in this area. [63] Holmes, P. Emerging Methods for Utility Locations. Proc., NO-DIG 2004, New Orleans, La., March 2004, 7 pp. GPR and electromagnetics (EM) are briefly discussed. Seis- mic technologies are being investigated for feasibility in util- ity locating. [64] Jackson, T., and W. Whitehead. Subsurface Utility Engineering on Municipal and Utility Projects from an Engineering Firms Perspective. Proc., NO-DIG 2004, New Orleans, La., March 2004, 6 pp. This paper focused on four case studies for municipal and utility projects where SUE services were performed, result- ing in safe, successful, and economic projects (36 in. gas pipeline, 12 in. water line, 48/54 in. water transmission line, and bus maintenance facility). [65] Jeong, H. S., D. M. Abraham, and J. J. Lew. Evaluation of an Emerging Market in Subsurface Utility Engineer- ing. J. of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, March/April 2004, 10 pp.This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of SUE to facilitate a better understanding of this emerging industry by the many in the construction domain that are relatively unfamiliar with it. Topics investigated include quality levels in SUE, incorporation of SUE strategy at different stages in the construction project, and cost-benefit analysis of SUE based on 71 actual construction projects where SUE was employed. In addition, the results obtained from question- naire surveys of state departments of transportation (DOT) and the SUE industry are analyzed, revealing the trend of state DOTs in the use of SUE and various aspects of SUE business in private sectors. [66] Andraka, M., and A. Spivey. Accurately Verifying Loca- tion of Underground Facilities. Proc., UCT 2003, Hous- ton, Tex., Jan. 2003, 27 slides. A yearlong pilot program was completed to investigate methods for locating underground utilities. A case history outlines an agency’s budget reduction, infrastructure man- agement, and technology enhancement using GPR and vac- uum excavation. [67] Guy, E. D., J. J. Daniels, and Z. Daniels. Cross-Hole Radar Effectiveness for Mine-Related Subsidence Inves- tigations: Studies Near Discontinuities Imaged Using High-Resolution Seismic Reflection. Proc., NASTT NO-DIG 2003 Conf., Las Vegas, Nev., March–April 2003, 15 pp. Cross-hole radar data were acquired along a section of Interstate 70 in Ohio, where the roadway had collapsed into underground coal mine workings. The goal was to test the ability of cross-hole radar methods for providing useful information for mine-related subsidence studies and to further investigate subsurface areas. [68] Kase, E., T. Ross, J. Descour, and D. Green. Leveraging Existing Infrastructure: Using What Is Already in the Ground. Proc., 54th Annual Highway Geology Sympo- sium, Sept. 2003. This paper reviews case studies where NSA Geotechnical Services has utilized cross-borehole seismic, cross-borehole GPR, and resistivity methods to characterize unknown bridge foundations. The applications and limitations of each geotechnical method are discussed. Also, a brief dis- cussion of new methodologies currently under develop- ment and being considered by NSA for characterizing unknown foundations is included. [69] Manacorda, G., and D. Pinchbeck. The European GIGA Project. Proc., Trenchless Middle East 2003, Dubai, United Emirates, Oct. 2003, 11 pp. GIGA is a research study funded by the European Com- mission to develop a new and reliable GPR. The paper describes main axes of research and the activities completed by Ingegneria dei Sistemi (IDS) until 2003. [70] Youn, H., C. Chen, and L. Peter, Jr. Automatic Pipe Detection Using Fully Polarimetric GPR. Proc., 2003

89ASAE Annual Meeting, American Society of Agricul- tural and Biological Engineers, 2003. An automatic pipe detection algorithm using a two-step artificial neural network (ANN) scheme on GPR data is presented. [71] An, G., and K. Yin. The Application of GIS to Urban Underground Space. Proc., ACUUS 2002 International Conference—Urban Underground Space: A Resource for Cities, Torino, Italy, Nov. 2002, 5 pp. Characteristics of GIS technique are discussed; the content of numerical simulation for the underground space is given. The combination of GIS technique and numerical simula- tion technique of underground space is proposed. [72] Arioglu, S. O., D. M. Abraham, N. Zembillas, and D. Halpin. Implementation of Subsurface Utility Engi- neering Technologies: A Case Study. Proc., ISTT NO-DIG 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark, May 2002, 11 pp. The paper focuses on several projects where SUE has been used in the U.S. and analyzes the impacts of using sub- surface utility engineering in terms of performance, cost, and schedules. [73] Birken, R., D. Miller, M. Burns, P. Albats, R. Casadonte, R. Deming, T. Derubeis, T. Hansen, and M. Oristaglio. Efficient Large-Scale Underground Utility Mapping Using a New Multi-Channel Ground-Penetrating Imaging Radar System. Proc., Symp. Application of Geo- physics to Engineering and Environmental Problems (SAGEEP 2002), Environmental and Engineering Geo- physical Society, Las Vegas, Nev., Feb. 2002. A commercial GPR called the CART Imaging System, which was designed for mapping urban infrastructure, has been developed in a collaboration between Witten Technologies, Malå Geoscience, and Schlumberger. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) sponsored research leading to the development of GPR. [74] Jeong, H. S., D. M. Abraham, J. H. Anspach, N. M. Zembillas, J. J. Lew, and D. W. Halpin. Identification of Buried Utilities Using Subsurface Utility Engineering (SUE). Proc., NASTT NO-DIG 2002, Montreal, Canada, April 2002, 13 pp. [75] Jet Propulsion Laboratory. NASA to Provide Sharper Underground View of World Trade Center Area. Press Release, NASA JPL, Aug. 2002. Witten Technologies, Inc., of Boston, would supply NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) with underground images from lower Manhattan created with ground-penetrating imaging radar. [76] Manacorda, G. IDS Radar Products for Utilities Map- ping and Ground Classification. Proc., ISTT NO-DIG Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, May 2002.In early 1990s, Ingegneria dei Sistemi (IDS) focused on the development of specialized GPR systems to be used for different applications (e.g., locating of under- ground objects and pipes), thus replacing the more traditional “general purpose” radar systems. This enabled overcoming some limitations of these systems, mainly low detection rate, insufficient accuracy, and low productivity. [77] Nissen, J. Ground Penetrating Radar—A Ground Investigation Method Applied to Utility Locating in NO-DIG Technologies. Proc., ISTT NO-DIG 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark, May 2002, 6 pp. During the last decade, GPR has proved its ability to act as a powerful geophysical tool for subsurface investigations. The most striking benefit is the possibility of GPR to detect nonmetallic objects such as plastic pipes and drums. Field examples demonstrate that the GPR technique is a time efficient and accurate method for detection and mapping of buried objects and structures. Field example #1 shows real-time, on-site detection, and field example #2 shows measurements with postprocessing analyses. [78] Saito, M. Technology for the Front Lines: Robotic Scien- tists and Engineers Come Up with Novel Ways to Slow the Spread of Landmines. Japan Inc. Communications, Dec. 2002. Robotics scientists and engineers from Japan are developing cutting-edge mine detectors. [79] Falomi, P. 3-D Radar Imaging of Buried Utilities by Fea- tures Estimation of Hyperbolic Diffraction Patterns in Radar Scans. Proc., 10th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Delft, Netherlands, June 2001. The paper describes a processing method to extract hyper- bolic patterns generated by the time-of-flight variation in radar scans due to buried utilities. [80] Kregg, M. A. Development of a Utility Feeder Infrared Thermography PdM Program—With Lessons Learned. Proc., InfraMation 2001, Orlando, Fla., Sept.–Oct. 2001, 10 pp. In 2000, ComEd (a large electric utility company in Illinois) was given a task to perform infrared scans of overhead distri- bution systems. [81] Lanka, M., A. Butler, and R. Sterling. Use of Approx- imate Reasoning Techniques for Locating Under- ground Utilities. A Supplement to Tunneling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2001, pp. 13–31. Description of a prototype process using approximate rea- soning for underground utility location is provided. The approximate reasoning process involves development of a series of techniques to handle uncertainties associated infor- mation on location of underground utilities.

90[82] Michelson, F. Modern Non-Invasive Geophysical Investigation Techniques for Planning of Underground Construction Projects. Proc., UCT ’01, Houston, Tex., Jan. 2001, 8 pp. The focus of the presentation was on noninvasive “continu- ous profiling” geophysical survey techniques, which pro- duce a noninterrupted continuous profile of the subsurface wither in real time or after processing. The most utilized methods are GPR, electromagnetic imaging, resistivity pro- filing, and seismic imaging. A combination of geophysical methods can be utilized for multiple target objects and to improve the accuracy of interpretations. [83] Roemer, L., and D. Cowling. Bayesian Methods in Non- destructive Testing. Materials Evaluation, Jan. 2001, pp. 59–62. [84] Berkovitch, A., L. Eppelbaum, and U. Basson. Appli- cation of Multifocusing Seismic Processing to GPR Data Analysis. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 597–606. Multifocusing seismic processing is based on the homeo- morphic image theory and consists of stacking seismic data with arbitrary source-receiver distribution accord- ing to a new local moveout correction. [85] Christensen, N. B., et al. The Use of Airborne Electro- magnetic Systems for Hydrogeological Investiga- tions. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 73–82. This paper presents analyses of the resolution capabilities of present-day transient electromagnetic (EM) systems and makes comparisons between airborne and the correspond- ing ground systems for a number of hydrogeologically rele- vant models. [86] Clement, W., and M. Knoll. Tomographic Inversion of Crosshole Radar Data: Confidence in Results. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 553–562. Crosshole radar tomography is increasingly being used to characterize the shallow subsurface and to monitor hydro- logic processes. Although tomographic inversion produces a subsurface model, confidently interpreting the resulting image can be challenging. A simple modeling study was conducted to better understand the capabilities and limita- tions of tomographic inversion. [87] Cull, J., and D. Massie. Modulated Active Magnetic Sur- veys for Sub-Surface Utility Mapping. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 1077–1084. A quasistatic magnetic method has been developed to indicate the exact location of subsurface utilities. Standard radio frequency EM transmitter methods are complicated by distortions associated with induction in secondary targets, including underground services and surface metallic artifacts. Similarly, standard high- definition magnetic methods are subject to high ambientnoise levels and ambiguities associated with superposi- tion of responses from multiple sources. The modulated active magnetic system (MODAM) has now been devel- oped to avoid these complications. Static magnetic fields are readily removed from the total held response by com- paring on-time and off-time magnitudes, allowing spatial vectors (defining the transmitter location) to be resolved with great precision. Results obtained from MODAM field trials have been confirmed with electronic total station surveys, giving an agreement better than 1.64 ft at 39.37 ft depth. [88] Daily, W., et al. Imaging UXO Using Electrical Imped- ance Tomography. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 791–800. The results of tests are reported where electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is used for detecting and locating buried unexploded ordnance (UXO). The method relies on the polarization induced at the boundary between soil and buried metal to produce a measurable phase difference between the injected current and the measured voltage. [89] Handlon, B., S. J. Lorenc, L. Bemold, and G. Lee. Tool Integrated Electromagnetic Pulse Induction Technol- ogy to Locate Buried Utilities. Proc., ISCAS 2000—IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Geneva, Switzerland, May 2000, 4 pp. In this paper, several pulse-induced electromagnetic sensor coils are discussed which have been designed, fabricated, and tested for underground utility pipe recognition. The work has been performed through the Buried Utilities Detection System (BUDS) Consortium at North Carolina State University. Characteristics of the sensor coils, includ- ing resolution and range, are provided and field-test results are discussed. [90] Hanna, K., and J. M. Descour. Timely and Accurate Subsurface Characterization for Highway Applications Using Seismic Tomography. Proc., 1st International Con- ference on the Application of Geophysical Methodologies and NDT to Transportation Facilities and Infrastructure, St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 2000. This paper describes new developments in seismic tomog- raphy aimed at providing greatly improved subsurface information during highway maintenance and construc- tion. Three case studies are discussed in which cross-hole seismic tomography was used to (1) assess highway settle- ment causes and determine the effectiveness of remedial grouting, (2) detect abandoned coal mine entries beneath a retaining wall foundation in Illinois, and (3) locate a rock tunnel beneath an interstate highway. [91] Keiswetter, D., et al. Advances in Frequency Domain Electromagnetic Induction Techniques for Improved Discrimination and Identification of Buried Un- exploded Ordnance. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 811–818.

91Recently completed field tests have demonstrated that fre- quency domain sensors, such as Geophex Ltd.’s GEM-3, can reliably separate UXO targets from clutter objects based on their complex broadband EM signatures. These field tests have also identified a number of areas where improvements are needed before this technology is transitioned to full-scale UXO cleanup applications. [92] Keiswetter, D., and I. J. Won. Multifrequency EM Mapping for Improved Site Characterization: Case His- tories. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 1167–1175. [93] LaBrecque, D., and X. Yang. Difference Inversion of ERT Data: A Fast Inversion Method for 3-D In Situ Monitoring. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 907–914. A new three-dimensional inversion algorithm has been developed for electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). The new algorithm is optimized for in situ monitoring applications. Instead of direct inversion of electric potential data, the new inversion algorithm inverts the difference between the background data and the subsequent data sets. The resistivity obtained by the inversion of background data serves as the a priori model in the difference inversion. [94] Lippincott, T., et al. Geophysical Site Characterization in Support of Highway Expansion Project. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 587–596. A site slated for roadway development was characterized applying GPR, shallow high-resolution reflection seismic, and dipole-dipole electrical resistivity methods. [95] McCann, D. M., and P. J. Fenning. Underground Pipe Location—Geophysics or Surveying. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 887–896. Surveys for the detection of underground pipes are a statu- tory requirement in the United Kingdom in the construc- tion and water supply industries. The volume of surveys undertaken suggests that this is a multimillion dollar opera- tion with surveys being undertaken by surveyors rather than geophysicists. The reasons for this approach are examined and the problems associated with the detection of under- ground pipes with geophysical methods are discussed. [96] Orrey, J., P. Sirles, and C. Archambeau. 3-D Imaging of Subsurface Features Using GPR Array Beam Imag- ing. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 423–432. This paper provides a brief review of standard survey and analysis methods for GPR and then introduces a new method for producing three-dimensional images of the subsurface using GPR array beam imaging (ABI). Also dis- cussed are the relative advantages of the ABI method over traditional methods and some potential future applications of the method.[97] Pipan, M., L. Baradello, E. Forte, and A. Prizzon. Polar- ization and Kinematic Effects in Azimuthal Investiga- tions of Linear Structures with Ground Penetrating Radar. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 433–452. Azimuthal variations of GPR response may be diagnostic of elongated subsurface targets. Tests were performed on two classes of targets of interest in archaeological and engi- neering applications: walls (archaeological remains) and underground utilities (plastic and metallic pipes). The response of targets buried at different depths in soils rang- ing from clays to coarse sands was measured to compare the performance of azimuthal multifold and conventional GPR techniques. [98] Radzevicius, S., J. Daniels, E. Guy, and M. Vendl. Sig- nificance of Crossed-Dipole Antennas for High Noise Environments. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 407–413. Crossed-dipole antennas can be used to reduce clutter and improve the signal-to-noise ratio of GPR surveys, depend- ing upon field conditions and the targets of interest. The crossed-dipole antenna consists of transmit and receive antennas oriented orthogonal to each other and is sensitive to field components oriented parallel to the long axis of the receive antenna. The physical shape and composition of targets will influence the polarization of the scattered field, and this enables cross-pole and co-pole antenna configura- tions to discriminate between different classes of targets for clutter removal. The improved isolation and ability to dis- criminate between different targets result in an improved signal-to-noise ratio. [99] Yang, X., D. LaBrecque, G. Morelli, W. Daily, and A. Ramirez. Three-Dimensional Complex Resistivity Tomography. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 897–906. A new three-dimensional complex-resistivity forward- modeling and inversion program was developed. Complex finite-difference equations were solved using either the bi-conjugate gradient method or quasiminimal residual method. A symmetric successive over-relaxation precondi- tioner was implemented for both solvers. [100] Young, T., and T. Larson. Combining Surface and Bore- hole Geophysical Techniques to Locate and Define a Buried Outwash Aquifer in Central Illinois. Proc., SAGEEP 2000, Arlington, Va., Feb. 2000, pp. 1085–1094. A few thick narrow bands of outwash deposits, 600 to 1,200 feet wide, were deposited in bedrock channels or trail- ing away from receding glacial fronts. These narrow deposits, now buried by 50 to 130 feet of younger drift, are difficult and impractical to locate using test drilling as the sole means of exploration. However, because the outwash deposits are enclosed within clayey glacial till and overlie shale bedrock, they are excellent targets for electrical earth resistivity (EER) surveys. When used together, surface and borehole

92geophysical methods provide a powerful means for locating, confirming, and delineating sand and gravel aquifers as well as aiding in optimum construction of water supply wells in this hydrogeologic setting. [101] Hyun, S. Y., et al. Measurement on Pipe Detectability of the GPR Consisting of Self-Designed Antenna. J of the Institute of Electronics Engineers of Korea, Vol. 36-D, No. 3, 1999, pp. 19–26. The detectability of pipes buried in dry sand is investigated by using the GPR with self-designed bow-tie antenna. It is shown that without additional signal processing the presence of various buried targets can be found by discriminating hyperbolic pattern in B-scan data. [102] Olhoeft, G. R. Applications and Frustrations in Using Ground Penetrating Radar. Proc., Ultra Wideband Con- ference, Washington, D.C., Sept. 1999, 13 pp. In this paper the author concentrates on the narrow por- tion of the electromagnetic spectrum from a few MHz to a few GHz where geophysicists use GPR. GPR is deployed today from the space shuttle, aircraft, on the surface, in and between boreholes, and sometimes from within or between mine shafts. The author discusses these applications and some of the problems involved. [103] Ciochetto, G., A. Giavelli, R. Polidoro, F. Roscini, and G. De Pasquale. Automatic Output of Underground Utility Maps Using GPR. Proc., GPR ’98, Lawrence, Kans., May 1998, 4 pp. The paper describes GPR field tests in Torino and data obtained from the investigations on a digital cartography of the urban area. It also briefly describes a new GPR system developed in Italy used in these tests. [104] Zeng, X., and G. A. McMechan. GPR Characterization of Buried Tanks and Pipes. Geophysics, Vol. 62, No. 3, 1997, pp. 797–806. Ray-based numerical simulations of monostatic and bistatic GPR responses for several tank and pipe configurations reveal the potential for noninvasive diagnostic evaluations. [105] Anspach, J. H. Subsurface Utility Engineering: Utility Detection Methods and Application. Proc., SAGEEP 1996, Keystone, Colo., April–May 1996, pp. 443–449. This paper provides an overview of the utility locating problem, the use of subsurface utility engineering process, and the capabilities of different utility detection methods. [106] Bradford J., M. Ramaswamy, and C. Peddy. Imaging PVC Gas Pipes Using 3-D GPR. Proc., SAGEEP 1996, Keystone, Colo., April–May 1996, pp. 519–524. Improvements in GPR data acquisition, 3-D processing, and visualization schemes yield good images of PVC pipes in the subsurface. Data have been collected in cooperation with a local gas company and at a test facility in Texas. Surveys were conducted over both a metal pipe and PVC pipes ofdiameters ranging from 0.5 in. to 4 in. at depths from 1 ft to 3 ft in different soil conditions. The metal pipe produced very good reflections and was used to fine tune and optimize the processing run stream. It was found that the following steps significantly improve the overall image: (1) statics for drift and topography compensation, (2) deconvolution, (3) filtering and automatic gain control, (4) migration for focusing and resolution, and (5) visualization optimization. [107] Bruce, B., N. Khadr, R. DiMarco, and H. H. Nelson. The Combination Use of Magnetic and Electromagnetic Detection and Characterization of UXO. Proc., SAGEEP 1996, Keystone, Colo., April–May 1996, pp. 469–478. Data has been collected on a test field of inert unexploded ordnance (UXO) with both a Geometrics 822A total field magnetometer and a Geonics EM61 pulsed electromagnetic induction sensor. This study allows comparison of the two instruments’ detection capabilities. [108] Gucunski, N., V. Ganji, and M. H. Maher. SASW Test in Location of Buried Objects. Proc., SAGEEP 1996, Keystone, Colo., April–May 1996, pp. 481–486. The spectral-analysis-of-surface-waves (SASW) method is a seismic nondestructive technique that has so far been typi- cally used in the evaluation of elastic moduli and layer thick- nesses of layered systems like soils and pavements. The paper discusses the most important findings on the effects of underground obstacles on the Rayleigh wave dispersion obtained from the SASW test, and the application of the test in detection of buried objects. [109] McDonald, J. R., and R. Robertson. Sensor Evaluation Study for Use with Towed Arrays for UXO Site Charac- terization. Proc., SAGEEP 1996, Keystone, Colo., April– May 1996, pp. 451–464. Development of a multisensor towed array detection system (MTADS) is described. The objective is to extend and refine ordnance detection technology to more efficiently character- ize ordinance and explosive waste sites. [110] Powers, M. H., and G. R. Olhoeft. Modeling the GPR Response of Leaking Buried Pipes. Proc., SAGEEP 1996, Keystone, Colo., April–May 1996, pp. 525–534. Using a 2.50 dispersive, full waveform GPR modeling pro- gram that generates complete GPR response profiles in min- utes on a Pentium PC, the effects of leaking versus nonleaking buried pipes are examined. The program accounts for the dis- persive, lossy nature of subsurface materials to GPR wave propagation and accepts complex functions of dielectric per- mittivity and magnetic permeability versus frequency through Cole-Cole parameters fit to laboratory data. Steel and plastic pipes containing a ONAPL chlorinated solvent, an LNAPL hydrocarbon, and natural gas are modeled in a sur- rounding medium of wet, moist, and dry sand. Leaking fluids were found to be more detectable when the sand around the pipes is fully water saturated. The short runtimes of the mod- eling program and its execution on a PC make it a useful tool for exploring various subsurface models.

93[111] Zhu, K. Analysis of Response of the Electromagnetic Induction for Detecting of Buried Objects. Proc., Intl. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS) 1996, IEEE, 96CB35875, Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan, 1996, pp. 2041–2043. In this paper, the low-frequency electromagnetic technique is used. The analysis of the response of buried objects to electromagnetic induction is made. [112] Anspach, J. H. Subsurface Utility Engineering: Upgrad- ing the Quality of Utility Information. Proc., Intl. Conf. on Advances in Underground Pipeline Engineering II, ASCE, Reston, Va., 1995, pp 813–824. [113] Anspach, J. H. Subsurface Utility Engineering: A Damage Prevention Tool for Trenchless Technology. Proc., NASTT NO-DIG ’95, Toronto, Canada, April–May 1995, pp. 2C1:1–8. Progressive permitting agencies are beginning to require use of SUE before any excavation near existing utilities. There is a new emphasis on utility damage prevention pro- grams at the federal level due to recent explosions and other disruptions. The trenchless technology industry must be aware of damage prevention tools at its disposal and produce industry standards to encourage their use in applicable situations. [114] Blejer, D., C. Frost, and S. Scarborough. Detection Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets, SAR Imag- ing of Minelike Targets over Ultra-Wide Band-Widths. MIT-MS-11042, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy, April 1995, 18 pp. The Lincoln Laboratory ground-based ultrawideband (UWB) rail synthetic aperture radar (SAR) was used to col- lect UHF and L-band data on a variety of mine-like targets. The target set consisted of metal pipes, bomb fragments, and M-20 metallic antitank mines, above- and belowground. [115] Herman, H., and S. Singh. First Results in Autonomous Retrieval of Buried Objects. Automation in Construction, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1995, pp. 111–123. For locating buried objects, the system uses a surface sensor (a laser rangefinder used to build the surface model) and a subsurface sensor (GPR). An industrial robot equipped with an excavator bucket is used for automated excavation. One of the potential applications is in the maintenance of gas pipes. [116] Ho, G. S., et al. Automatic Detection of Buried Pipes from Subsurface Radar Image. Trans. Inst. Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers, Vol. 1995, No. 2, Japan, p. 184. [117] Honjoh, K., et al. Examination of Buried Objects Detection Technology for Hole Excavator: A Study of Vibrational Buried-Pipe Detection Techniques for the Auger-Crane System. Proc., IEICE General Conference,No. 2 (19950327), Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers, Japan, 1995, p. 397. Vibration sensor in the excavator senses vibration changes due to a buried pipe. [118] Katsan, I. F., A. I. Potapov, and O. L. Sokolov. Radar Introscope for the Automated Detection and Identifi- cation of Small-Sized Objects. Defektoskopiya, Dec. 1995, pp. 70–79. Design of radar introscope using super-wideband electro- magnetic signal with duration of 1 ns and less is proposed. Small-sized objects in the ground or other media would be detected and identified. The results of radar introscopy of ground bed to detect a pipe are considered. The interference- killing features of proposed device are estimated. [119] Lee, K. C., G. Junkin, and S. P. Kingsley. New Strategy to Locate Buried Objects in Highly Lossy Ground. IEE Proc.—Radar, Sonar, and Navigation, Vol. 142, No. 6, Dec. 1995, pp. 306–312. An electromagnetic scale model, with well-defined and vari- able electrical parameters, has been constructed to investi- gate experimentally the optimum GPR strategies for use in extremely lossy conditions. A new geometry is proposed that reduces the dynamic-range requirements of a ground- probing radar, allows the permittivity of the medium to be estimated, and provides a clear time window for close tar- gets to be detected. An image-retrieval algorithm is described for image reconstruction. [120] Miyazaki, T., T. Sugimoto, and M. Okujima. Shear Elastic Wave Exploration of Buried Objects in Under- ground at Test Field in Nara National Cultural Prop- erties Research Institute. Proc., 1995 Spring Meeting of the Acoustical Society of Japan, Suppl. 1-2-15, March 1995, Tokyo, pp. 945–946. [121] Shouyi, X., W. Chengyi, and S. Chang. Improved Labeling Region Calculation Area and Tabling Line Fol- lowing Methods with Applications to Recognition of Buried Pipe Object. Nanyang Technological Univer- sity, Singapore, 1995. Two methods for recognizing buried pipe objects from the subsurface radar image are introduced. [122] Honda, S., Y. Tomita, and S. Nagashima. Analysis of the Location Technology of Buried Pipe Lines. Trans- actions of the Society of Instrument and Control Engi- neers, Vol. 30, No. 6, Japan, 1994, pp. 603–608. Alternating magnetic field location technology has been used to establish the location and the depth of a buried pipe with- out digging. AC voltage applied to the conductive pipe makes current flow out both ways and leaks away to the sur- rounding soil. These currents along the pipe create a mag- netic field of a cylindrical shape, which can be detected above the ground.

94[123] Kasahara, H. Detecting Pipes from Underground Radar Image with Estimation of Dielectric Constant using Hough Transform. Proc., 1994 Far East Con- ference on NDT (FENDT ’94) and ROCSNT Ninth Annual Conference, 1994, pp. 199–203. [124] Zhenye, X., et al. Identification of Multiple Underground Metal Pipes in Short Range by Means of Curve Fitting. IEEE, New York, N.Y., 1994. Data is sampled manually on a single underground metal pipe at a worksite with an existing electromagnetic induction underground metal pipe detector. Then the off-line computer processing is performed. Thus, a fitted experiential, formula of the secondary electromagnetic field of a single underground metal pipe is obtained. According to this experiential formula, identification of multiple pipes can be performed by fitting for experi- mental data. [125] Arai, I., and T. Suzuki. Experimental Results of Sub- surface Radar with Improved Resolution Short-Range Sensing. J. of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, Vol. 7, No. 11, 1993, pp. 1479–1495. Several new techniques, including noise and clutter rejec- tion techniques, were introduced in order to develop sub- surface radar that has high target resolution, extended range, and clear image. Experimental results are presented to demonstrate improved capabilities. [126] Chikara, N., et al. The Development of Ace Mole 10 Series Shield Machine Front Detection Technology. NTT Gijutsu Janaru, Vol. 5, No. 10, Japan, 1993, pp. 62–64. The problem of underground collisions between the Ace Mole machine and buried objects resulted in the develop- ment of sensors that detect objects buried in the pathway of the machine. [127] Yamaguchi, Y., and M. Sengoku. Detection of Objects Buried in Sandy Ground by a Synthetic Aperture FM- CW Radar. IEICE Trans. Communications, Vol. E76-B, No. 10, Oct. 1993, pp. 1297–1304. An FM-Continuous Wave radar system for the detection of objects buried in sandy ground is explored and is applied to a field measurement. [128] Yiwei, H., U. Toru, A. Saburo, and M. Takunori. Two- Dimensional Active Imaging of Conducting Objects Buried in a Dielectric Half-Space. 1992 International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation, IEICE Trans- actions on Communications, Vol. E76-B, No. 12 (19931225), 1993, pp. 1546–1551. Proposed two-dimensional quasiexact active imaging method for detecting the conducting objects buried in a dielectric half-space is described.[129] Baoyi, W., X. Runming, D. Yangjian, and Y. Huiqing. Nanosecond Electromagnetic Pulse for Detecting Under- ground Pipes and Holes. Acta Electronica Sinica, Vol. 20, No. 12, Dec. 1992, pp. 36–41. A system for detecting underground targets by nanosecond electromagnetic pulse method is described. [130] Nagashima, S., K. Suyama, and T. Kobori. Techniques for Locating Underground Utilities. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 92, Washington, D.C., April 1992, 15 pp. Tokyo Gas previously developed ground-probing radar and an electromagnetic induction type pipe locator, and Tokyo Gas utilized both in the field. This paper presents an outline of these two techniques by mainly introducing the achievements of the development work performed by Tokyo Gas. [131] Weil, J. G. Non-Destructive, Remote Sensing of Buried Tanks. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 92, Washington, D.C., April 1992, 6 pp. Remote-sensing, infrared thermography is a refined and accurate process for the noncontact, nondestructive testing of subsurface areas for the presence and location of buried tanks and industrial/utility equipment. This technology has been thoroughly proven to be a precise, cost-effective, effi- cient, and repeatable tool during its 10-year development and testing process. This technical paper details a case study in which infrared thermography was used to locate buried industrial waste materials along with buried underground storage tanks (UST) and miscellaneous waste items as small as 55-gallon drums. [132] Kaneko, T. Radar Image Processing for Locating Under- ground Linear Objects. IEICE Transactions on Infor- mation and Systems, Vol. E74-D, No. 10, Oct. 1991, pp. 3451–3458. This paper presents an image-processing method using ground-probing radar data taken by synthetic aperture radar. The method locates underground linear objects such as pipes carrying telephone/electricity cables, and it realizes high measurement accuracy with short computation time. [133] Liu, C., and L. C. Shen. Numerical Simulation of Sub- surface Radar for Detecting Buried Pipes. IEEE Trans- actions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 29, No. 5, Sept. 1991, pp. 795–798. A subsurface radar for the detection of dielectric or metal pipes buried in the ground was investigated numerically. [134] Wensink, W. A., J. Hofman, and J. K. Van Deen. Mea- sured Reflection Strengths of Underwater Pipes Irradi- ated by a Pulsed Horizontal Dipole in Air: Comparison with continuous Plane-Wave Scattering Theory. Geo- physical Prospecting, Vol. 39, No. 4, Delft, Netherlands, 1991, pp. 543–566.

95At Delft Geotechnics, GPR is in use for the detection of buried objects such as pipes. In order to give “measurements in the field” a more quantitative interpretation, a series of experiments has been started under well-defined conditions. [135] Honda, S., and Y. Miyamoto. Analysis of Alternating Magnetic Field Location Technology of Buried Pipe Lines. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 25, No. 5, Sept. 1989, pp. 3281–3283. The magnetic field induced by currents flowing through the ground between a buried pipe and an earth contact electrode is analyzed and numerically evaluated. [136] Yuji, N., M. Jun-Ichi, S. Yoshikazu, and O. Kyouichi. Underground Radar Apparatus Using Pattern Recog- nition in Frequency Domain. NTT R D, Vol. 38, No. 6, 1989, pp. 667–676. A new signal processing technique to improve the detection accuracy of an underground radar system (pulse radar) is described. [137] Miyamoto, Y., Y. Wasa, K. Mori, and Y. Kondo. Pipe Locator for Imaging Underground Pipelines. J. of Applied Physics, Vol. 64, No. 10, Nov. 1988. Pipe locator system for imaging the complex underground pipelines (such as tee, bend, riser, etc.) using magnetic remote sensing techniques has been developed. [138] Wasa, Y., et al. Magnetic Detection for Underground Pipes. J. of Applied Physics, Vol. 64, No. 10, Nov. 1988. Magnetic detection has been investigated for use in detect- ing the location of underground pipelines, such as gas and water lines, by inputting a signal current into a pipeline and detecting magnetic field generated by that current. [139] Ueno, K., and N. Osumi. Underground Pipe Detection Based on Microwave Polarization Effect. International Symposium on Noise and Clutter Rejection in Radars and Imaging Sensors, Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 1984, pp. 673–678. A polarization diversity method for underground object imaging is proposed and applied to detection of linear objects, such as pipes. Miscellaneous Articles [140] Association Takes Position on Marking Laterals. Underground Construction, Jan. 2007. This article discusses the responsibilities of contractors and owners with respect to the marking of sewer laterals. [141] Pollock, M. Keyhole Technology: After 40 Years—An Overnight Success. Trenchless Technology, Vol. 14, No. 7, July 2005, pp. 54–55. In addition to utility maintenance, the keyhole technology has other direct applications and can be used for inspection holes for SUE.[142] Proulx, C. R. GPR: Past, Present, and Future. Trench- less Technology, Vol. 12, No. 4, April 2003, pp. 18–20. The article describes GPR history, how GPR works, its suit- ability for utility locating, and its limitations. [143] Rada, G. Hydroexcavation: Utility Locates and Much, Much More. Proc., Damage Prevention Conference and Exposition, Tampa, Fla., Dec. 2003, 14 pp. This is a short PowerPoint presentation describing the use and benefits of hydroexcavation in the utility location process. [144] Rahman, S. Study Recommends Methods for Locating PVC Pipes. PVC News, Vol. 26, No. 1, Uni-Bell PVC Pipe Association, Spring 2003, p 5. This article references the AWWARF research listed in bib- liography entry 30, New Techniques for Precisely Locating Buried Infrastructure. The technologies discussed include GPR, electromagnetic (EM), sonic and acoustic (SA), mag- netometry (MAG), and infrared (IR). [145] Damage Prevention Benefiting from Web-Based Sys- tems. Underground Focus, Vol. 16, No. 5, Nov./Dec. 2002, pp. 14–15. Internet-based locate request systems will provide a high- resolution aerial photo of the dig site area when an address or latitude/longitude coordinates are provided. [146] Crouch, A., and G. Chell. Making the “Smart Pig” Smarter. Technology Today, Southwest Research Insti- tute (SwRI), San Antonio, Tex., Fall 2002. A new nondestructive evaluation technology based on nonlinear harmonics (NLH) to improve traditional in-line inspection (ILI) methods for pipelines was devel- oped. The NLH method consists of impressing an alter- nating magnetic field onto a magnetic material such as steel and sensing the amount of magnetism produced in the part. The amplitudes of harmonic excitations are considered related to the level of stress and strain in the steel pipe wall. [147] Rush, J. Urban Microsurgery: Keyhole Technology Keeps Traffic Flowing. Trenchless Technology Magazine, Vol. 11, No. 6, June 2002, p. 28. Keyhole technology allows access to buried pipelines for repair or renovation. Advancement is being made through developing more efficient air excavation equipment that uses a focused laser-like air stream. [148] Miller, K., and M. R. Wallbom. New System Developed for Locating Sewer Laterals. Underground Focus, Vol. 14, No. 7, Nov./Dec. 2000, pp. 8–10. The DrillSafe system is described. It integrates the Aries lateral camera with a special electronic sonde, which maps depth, location, and direction of each lateral from the mainline.

96[149] Miller, R. J., and M. J. Culig. Borehole Geophysics Clears for Pipe Bursting. Trenchless Technology, July 1998, pp. 34–35. In Oak Ridge, Tennessee, an existing sewer pipe had to be replaced and there was a concern about potential damage to utilities within the zone of influence. For locating these utili- ties, electromagnetic induction and magnetic susceptibility methods were applied through the pipe to be burst. [150] Pasquale, G. D., and G. Pinelli. No-Dig Application Planning Using Dedicated Radar Techniques. No-Dig International, Vol. 9, No. 2, Feb. 1998, pp. I.12–I.14. The use of GPR for utility mapping and soil surveying is investigated. [151] Hayward, P. Ground Investigation and Utility Loca- tion. No-Dig International, Vol. 8, No. 5, May 1997, pp. 19–24. This article reviews remote utilities location equipment and ground probing radar system. [152] Meade, R. B., and R. J. Chignell. Tool Advances Pipe Location and Construction Planning. Pipeline and Gas Journal, April 1997, pp. 42–46. A robust single-unit development of GPR has now been developed for the utility industry, offering a method of locating buried piping of any material, without excavation. [153] Chernekoff, J., and D. Toussaint. Pipe Location Tech- nology Has Rich History. Water Engineering Manage- ment, Vol. 141, No. 4, 1994, pp. 28–31. The locators may use engineered plastics, microprocessors, transistors, and integrated circuits, but the physics of under- ground locating has not changed. [154] Marking Hard-to-Find Pipes. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Vol. 217, No. 9, 1990, pp. 32–36. New technology for locating buried pipes and cables is pre- sented. It promises to eliminate many of the problems expe- rienced with conventional methods. [155] Finding Buried Lines. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Vol. 214, No. 7, July 1987, pp. 32–34. There are four primary devices available for relocating under- ground facilities: permanent magnets, radioactive markers, active direct buried devices, and passive direct buried devices. [156] Howell, M. I. Pipeline and Cable Location. Pipes and Pipelines International, Vol. 32, No. 5, Sept.–Oct. 1987, pp. 12–17. This paper outlines some existing methods for the survey of buried conductors and attempts a forecast of a succes- sor. Topics discussed include the cosine antenna, proper- ties of alternating currents in buried conductors, other signal-current sources, sum of currents in a network, sources of signal current, and the triple sine antenna.Utility Characterizing These references provide information on how to identify util- ity type, material, condition, and operating characteristics. Methods and technologies for pipe inspection and condition assessment are also described. Reports [157] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Adminis- tration. Design, Construction and Testing of a Segmented MFL Sensor for Use in the Inspection of Unpiggable Pipe- lines. Ongoing Research #160, DTRS56-05-T-0002, Northeast Gas Association for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2008. The objective of the proposed project is to develop a seg- mented magnetic flux leakage (MFL) sensor and respective module for integration in a robotic platform (TIGRE—being developed through a parallel project, which is part of this consolidated program) that will allow the inspection of presently unpiggable transmission pipelines. The sensor will cover only a portion of the pipe’s internal surface but should be able to provide the same level of sensitivity and accuracy as a state-of-the-art MFL sensor used in smart pigs. Through multiple passes of the pipe, or through rotation and transla- tion of the sensor down the pipe, the entire surface of the pipe will be inspected. [158] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. Characterization of Stress Corrosion Cracking Using Laser Ultrasonics. Ongoing Research #188, DTPH56- 06-T-000003, Intelligent Optical Systems, Inc., Lab- oratory for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2008. The objective of the proposed effort is to apply the proven technologies of laser ultrasonics and finite difference simu- lation toward the development of a tool that can provide the ability to map the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) colonies accurately and provide spatially precise three-dimensional data, and to develop an application that can do so in an effi- cient manner in the field. [159] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Adminis- tration. Define, Optimize, and Validate Detection and Sizing Capabilities of Phased-Array Ultrasonics to Inspect Electrofusion Joints in Polyethylene Pipes. Ongoing Research #187, DTPH56-06-T-000002, Edison Welding Institute, Inc., Laboratory for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2008. Research was conducted to define the detection and sizing capabilities of current state-of-the-art phased-array tech- nique for nondestructive inspection of electrofusion and saddle lap-joints in polyethylene gas distribution pipelines. Additional tasks include the development of an optimized phased-array procedure and determination of the perfor- mance of the technique and proposed improvements.

97[160] Gas Technology Institute. Pipeline Assessments Through Keyholes. Ongoing Research, Gas Technology Institute, Chicago, Ill., 2007. Available technology for pipeline inspection is being adapted to allow inspections to be made easily through small “key- holes.” The technology measures pipe-wall thickness exter- nally. Special tools and system modifications will be developed to eliminate currently required open-cut excava- tion to access the pipe. The solution is based on broadband electromagnetic (BEM) sensors. [161] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Adminis- tration. Infrasonic Frequency Seismic Sensor System for Pipeline Integrity Management. Ongoing Research #183, DTRS57-05-C-10110, Physical Sciences, Inc., Laboratory for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Admin- istration, 2007. The infrasonic gas pipeline evaluation network (PIGPEN) system has been successfully developed. It detects and warns of third-party damage before it occurs. PIGPEN uses low frequency seismic/acoustic sensor technology to pro- actively detect and warn of unauthorized activity near underground gas pipelines before damage occurs, thereby preventing third-party damage and subsequent pipeline leaks or failure. Under the Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) phase I work, Physical Sciences, Inc., successfully demonstrated the basic feasibility of the concept and will transition the technology from its current proof-of-concept stage to a precommercial prototype in phase II. [162] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Adminis- tration. Hazardous Liquids Airborne Lidar Observation Study (HALOS). Ongoing Research #153, DTRS56-04- T-0012, ITT Industries Space Systems for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2007. ITT is extending the airborne natural gas emission lidar (ANGEL) technology to the detection of small hazardous liquid and refined product leaks. The ANGEL system is designed to remotely detect, quantify, and map small plumes of methane and ethane, the principal constituents of natural gas. In addition to the hardware and software systems, ITT has developed expertise in the spectroscopy, modeling, and empirical/physical testing and validation of airborne dispersed hazardous vapors. These tests have yielded preliminary results that indicate the detection of vapors from hazardous liquids is possible with minimal changes to the existing ANGEL system. [163] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration and Office of Pipeline Safety. Mechanical Damage Study. Ongoing Research, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration and Office of Pipeline Safety, 2007. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration/ Office of Pipeline Safety has commissioned a synthesis study on mechanical damage. This study will evaluate the state of technology as well as gaps in the accepted technology neces- sary to understand, identify, assess, manage, and mitigate mechanical damage of pipelines.[164] Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. Airborne LIDAR Pipeline Inspection System (ALPIS) Map- ping Tests. Ongoing Research # 93, DTRS56-01-X-0023, LaSen and U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2007. The airborne LIDAR pipeline inspection system (ALPIS) is an airborne remote sensing system for detecting leaks associ- ated with natural gas and hazardous liquid pipelines. Data collected with ALPIS can be incorporated into a geographic information system (GIS) to create mapping databases. Project goals were to achieve survey speeds of up to 150 miles per hour and cost equal to or less than much slower survey methods currently available. [165] Reed, C., A. J. Robinson, and D. Smart. Potential Tech- niques for the Assessment of Joints in Water Distribution Pipelines. AWWA 64358, American Water Works Asso- ciation, Feb. 2007, 354 pp. The objective of this study was to identify and document key problems associated with the failure of joints in water distribution pipelines and to investigate and report on the performance of existing and emerging techniques for the location, condition assessment, and repair of these joints. Consideration has also been given as to how the informa- tion relating to testing and condition assessment can be used by water utilities. A decision support tool has been developed to assist with the selection of appropriate technologies. [166] Pabla, A. S. Electric Power Distribution. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2005, 878 pp. Information is given on avoiding power reductions and failures, as well as meeting tests posed by new technologies and greater loads, maintenances issues, and privatization. Detection systems for electrical cable faults are also described. [167] Thomson, J., and L. Grada. An Examination of Innova- tive Methods Used in the Inspection of Wastewater Collec- tion Systems. WERF Report 01-CTS-7, Jan. 2005, 216 pp. A comprehensive review of the current state of the art of investigation technology is provided for both gravity and force mains. [168] Baker, M., Jr. Dent Study. U.S. Department of Trans- portation, Research and Special Program Adminis- tration, Office of Pipeline Safety, Nov. 2004, 45 pp. This study is about potential effects of dents on the integrity of both gas and liquid pipelines, in particular of dents located between the four o’clock and eight o’clock positions, commonly referred to as “bottom-side” dents. However, several aspects of dents in general (i.e., issues germane to bottom-side dents as well as other dents) were also reviewed and, for completeness, were reported therein. Since dents with and without associated surficial damage (e.g., scratches, gouges, etc.) are fairly common,

98PHMSA/OPS determined that there was a need to address the ability of pipeline operators to detect and evaluate occurrences, particularly bottom-side dents, in the context of integrity management. [169] Baker, M., Jr. Pipe Wrinkle Study. U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Program Admin- istration, Office of Pipeline Safety, Oct. 2004, 74 pp. This report examines effects of corrosion metal loss on pipe wrinkles and buckles in steel pipelines. The report focuses on the ability of in-line inspection (ILI) to detect corrosion- related defects within the deformed pipe section and evalu- ates the possibility of developing a demand-capacity criteria framework for evaluation of wrinkles and buckles with gen- eral metal loss due to corrosion. [170] Mide Technology Corporation. Piezo Structural Acoustic Pipeline Leak Detection System. June 2004, 90 pp. An innovative method for detecting leaks in pipelines has been developed. A structural-acoustic sensing and alert sys- tem continuously monitors a pipeline without a need for an external power source. The system is based on Mide’s patented PowerAct conformable packages piezoelectric actu- ator and sensor. The sensor produces voltage in response to strain induced in active material. When bonded to a struc- ture such as pipe, any disturbances in the pipe will show up as a voltage trace over the poles of the sensor. These sensors are extremely sensitive with very high gain and can detect the most minute and high-frequency strains. Since leaks in high-pressure gas pipelines fit this description, this is a good sensor to apply to the specific problem. [171] United Kingdom Water Industry Research. Service Pipe Leakage. Ref: 02/WM/08/28, Pipeline Developments Ltd., 2002, 120 pp. This report looks principally at detection and location meth- ods to find leakage in water pipes, and a comprehensive deci- sion chart has been developed to aid the user in selecting what will most likely be the lowest-cost repair solution. A prototype twin wall insertion probe has been developed which enables the precise location of a service pipe leak to be determined. The bulk of the report is dedicated to the experi- ments conducted using neural networks to attempt to char- acterize service pipe leaks. The aim was to use the acoustic signals given off by a leaking pipe to determine the location and size of the leak as well as the material from which the pipe was made. Approaches to valuing changes in external costs are developed. In addition, the methodology provides an approach to updating historical estimates of cost, taking account of existing interventions aimed at internalizing external costs, and allowing for sunk capital. The methodol- ogy is illustrated with case studies. [172] Bubenik, T. A., J. B. Nestleroth, R. J. Davis, B. N. Leis, R. B. Francini, A. Crouch, S. Udpa, and M. A. K. Afzal. In-Line Inspection Technologies for Mechanical Damage and SCC in Pipelines. Report No. DTRS56-96-C-0010, U.S. Department of Transporation, Office of Pipeline Safety, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, June 2000, 299 pp.The project evaluated and developed in-line inspection technologies for detecting mechanical damage and cracking in natural gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines. Covered are (1) inspection methods for mechanical damage, (2) methods of detecting stress-corrosion cracks, and (3) verification testing and improvements in the analysis methods. The intended audience is government represen- tatives, pipeline companies, and inspection vendors. [173] National Research Council. Seeing into the Earth: Non- invasive Characterization of the Shallow Subsurface for Environmental and Engineering Applications. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000, 148 pp. The book examines why noninvasive characterization is important and how improved methods can be developed and disseminated. It also provides background on (1) the role of noninvasive subsurface characterization in contam- inant cleanup, resource management, civil engineering, and other areas; (2) the physical, chemical, biological, and geological properties that are characterized; and (3) meth- ods of characterization and prospects for technological improvement. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [174] Bresciani, F., and F. Peri. Guided Waves Inspection of Pipelines: Experiences of Italian Institute of Welding. Proc., ISTT NoDig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007, S2_04. The experiences of the Italian Institute of Welding in inspection of aboveground pipelines and road crossings using advanced diagnostic techniques, above all guided waves technology. Guided ultrasonic technique involves transmitting ultrasonic lamb waves along the pipe length. Using this method, several hundred feet of pipe can be inspected from a single location. [175] Dayananda, D., C. G. Wilmut, and B. J. Dsouza. Effec- tive Identification of Service Line Defects with Electro- Scan Technology. Proc., Texas Water 2007 Conference, San Antonio, Tex., March 2007. Electroscan technology in the form of the FELL-41 (focused electrode leak locator) system is used for inspecting waste- water mains from manholes for pipe sizes that were a mini- mum of 6 in. in diameter. The sonde was redesigned to cater to smaller wastewater lines like service lines. The new service line sonde is called the FELL-21, and it is effective in testing pipes in the 3-in. to 6-in. pipe diameter range with access through cleanouts. [176] Kuroiwa, M., and N. Arita. Airflow-Push Type Intelli- gent TV Camera-System for the Pipes with Several Right-Angle Bends. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007. A new camera system for inspection of small-diameter pipes (2 in. to 3 in. in diameter with multiple 90° bends) has been developed. The system propels the camera head forward by airflow and has flexible cables that provide low

99resistance. Also, software has been developed to acquire data required for creating three-dimensional drawings by loading a small three-axis acceleration sensor into the camera head. [177] Sakaki, K. Measures for the Prevention of Road Cave-ins—An Inspection Technique Utilizing Electro- magnetic Waves to Identify External Pipe Voids Sur- rounding Sewer Laterals. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007. A new inspection method, which emits an electromagnetic wave from within the pipe and detects the voids surround- ing sewer laterals directly by reflected waves (electromag- netic radar), has been developed. This inspection technique can be performed at the same time as the conventional CCTV survey. [178] Willems, H., M. Nadler, M. Werle, and O. A. Barbian. New Tool Looks For Circumferential Cracks. Pipeline and Gas Journal, March 2007, pp. 32–36. An automated ultrasonic inspection system (intelligent pig) has been developed for the detection of transverse crack- like defects in pipelines. [179] Ariaratnam, S. T., and N. Guercio. In-Pipe Ground Pen- etrating Radar for Non-Destructive Evaluation of PVC Lined Concrete Pipe. Solid Mechanics and Its Applica- tions: Advances in Engineering Structures, Mechanics and Construction, Vol. 140, 2006, pp. 763–772. This paper describes the testing, development, and appli- cation of a novel assessment technology, which combines in-pipe GPR with digital scanning and evaluation technol- ogy (DSET) robotics to collect accurate information about the condition of the inside wall of concrete sewer pipes. A case study applying this innovative technology to sections of large-diameter PVC-lined concrete pipe in the City of Phoenix is presented. The study and adoption of innovative pipeline assessment methods provide better information to improve the decision-making process, thereby making economical decisions to optimize resources in more efficient ways. [180] Grigg, N. S. Condition Assessment of Water Distribution Pipes. J. of Infrastructure Systems, Vol. 12, No. 3, Sept. 2006, pp. 147–153. The paper reviews utility practices in condition assessment of water distribution systems and compares the practices in leading utilities. It is indicated that the utilities could utilize available information better; however, they are impeded by lack of a standard procedure for recording data on leaks, breaks, and condition indicators. Advanced applications are required for the future. These might include real-time assessment, smart pigs to collect data, small chip sets, and automated pipe data registration. [181] Jaganathan, A., E. N. Allouche, and N. Simicevic. Pipe- line Scanning: Novel Technology for Detection of Voids and Internal Defects in Non-Conductive BuriedPipes. Proc., ISTT 2006 No-Dig Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 2006. Nonconductive buried pipe systems deteriorate over time under the action of various applied and environmental loads, chemical and microbiological induced corrosions, and differ- ential settlements. Defects hidden beneath encrustation, cement mortar lining, or a thermoplastic liner, as well as voids immediately outside of the pipe, are difficult to detect. It is proposed to develop a novel inspection technology, employing UWB pulsed radar system, for detecting “below surface” defects, corrosion, and out-of-pipe voids in non- metallic buried pipes. This paper presents the theoretical foundation for the proposed method, followed by the results of a detailed numerical simulation. The numerical simulation employed custom-developed finite difference time domain (FDTD) code using a cylindrical coordinate system. Results from simulating the scanning of selected soil-pipe interface scenarios are presented. Experimental validation efforts of the proposed pipe scanning approach are also described. [182] Galleher, J. J., Jr., G. E. C. Bell, and A. E. Romer. Com- parison of Two Electromagnetic Techniques to Deter- mine the Physical Condition of PCCP. Proc., Pipeline 2005, Houston, Tex., Aug. 2005, pp. 401–410. Two providers of electromagnetic inspection services (gen- erally using similar methods) were evaluated by comparing their findings; both providers had surveyed the same seg- ment of the pipeline with differing results. Next, their results were directly compared with actually observed defects. This paper reviews the results and documents the predicted elec- tromagnetic results along with the observed physical condi- tion of the pipe sections and emphasizes the importance of proper records and the utilization of other impact factors that affect the performance. [183] Xiangjie, K., and B. Mergelas. Condition Assessment of Small Diameter Water Transmission Mains. Proc., Pipeline 2005, Houston, Tex., Aug. 2005, pp. 252–262. A majority of the concrete pressure pipe that has been manufactured and installed in the U.S. is less than 48 in. in diameter. Depending on the design requirements, embedded and lined cylinder pipe (AWWA 301) and bar wrapped pipe (AWWA 303) are commonly used in this size. However, the mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) and bar wrapped pipe are different. Nonetheless, three distinct assessment tools designed to detect broken wires (or bars) or leakage are useful for understanding the condition of these high-value assets. [184] Harris, R. J., and J. Tasello. Sewer Leak Detection— Electro-Scan Adds a New Dimension. Case Study: City of Redding, CA. Proc., Pipelines 2004, San Diego, Calif., Aug, 2004. This study shows that sewer electroscanning is able to pin- point pipe defects that are large sources of collection system infiltration. These defects were not located using other inves- tigation methods. In a pilot study in Redding, California,

100electroscanning 25,000 ft of main line sewers was investi- gated to pinpoint the sources of the infiltration in a subbasin that had particularly high peak wet weather flows. [185] Jarnecke, D. Keyhole Technology: Taking Big Steps to Get Small. Proc., UCT ’04, Houston, Tex., Jan. 2004, 25 pp. The Gas Technology Institute was working to develop a key- hole process for main leak repair (steel and polyethylene [PE]), service leak repair (steel and PE), new service connec- tions, service replacement/installation, and service abandon- ment (steel and PE). [186] Seleznev, V., and V. Aleshin. Computation Technology for Safety and Risk Assessment of Gas Pipeline Systems. Proc., 2004 Asian International Workshop Advanced Reli- ability Modeling, Hiroshima, Japan, Aug. 2004. Computation technology for investigating failures at gas pipelines is presented. High accuracy mathematical models describing failures in gas pipelines from failure initiation to localizing its consequences are simultaneously created and numerically analyzed. [187] Seung, M. S., H. S. Jin, and B. K. Sang. Real-Time Monitoring System to Detect Third-Party Damage on Natural Gas Pipeline Using Acoustic Detection Method. Proc., International Conference: Advances in Dynamics, Instrumentation and Control (CDIC) 2004, Nanjing, China, Aug. 2004. This paper presents propagation model and its experimental results to detect third-party damage on natural gas pipeline using acoustic detection method. The paper also involves an evaluation based on the modeled mathematical equations using the developed monitoring system. [188] Sinha, S. K. A Multi-Sensory Approach to Structural Health Monitoring of Buried Sewer Pipelines Infra- structure System. Proc., Pipelines 2004, San Diego, Calif., Aug. 2004. A research project at the Pennsylvania State University is carried out to determine if a multisensory method could be used for structural health monitoring of buried pipeline infrastructure system. This paper presents preliminary research efforts. [189] Vengrinovich, V. L., Y. Denkevich, S. Zolotarev, A. Kuntsevich, and S. Emelyanenkov. New Technique for Pipes Wall Thickness Assessment Considering Scattering Effect. 8th European Conference on Nondestructive Test- ing, Barcelona, Spain, June 2002. The problem of image reconstruction from incomplete X-ray data, applied to in situ pipes wall thickness assessment, is considered. Main critical points are (a) limited number of X-ray projections, (b) limited angle for object observation by X-ray setup (c) presence of an isolation, (d) presence of a process liquid, and (e) X-ray scattering effect.[190] Tafuri, A. Locating Leaks with Acoustic Technology. Journal of AWWA, Vol. 92, No. 7, July 2000, pp. 57–66. The project sought ways to use acoustic technology to pin- point leaks as small as 0.1 gph in petroleum pipelines, a reg- ulatory requirement for those lines. Because all experiments were conducted using water and on pipelines of size and material similar to those found in many water distribution systems, results also apply to these pipelines. Although leaks of 0.1 gph are unusually small to search for in water distri- bution systems, researchers were able to locate small leaks within 1 ft, which is comparable to the best practice of commercially available leak-pinpointing technology for water distribution systems. [191] Whiteley, R. J. Increasing The Confidence of Ground Condition Assessments for Existing and New Buried Infrastructure. Proc., GeoEng 2000, Vol. 2, Melbourne, Australia, Nov. 2000, p. 591. Recently, specially developed seismic imaging technologies such as SRT, SEWREEL, and SUBS, which are analogous to Medical CT scanning, have demonstrated the ability to elu- cidate external ground conditions and to locate significant voids or weak ground. These technologies may be imple- mented from the conduit or boreholes according to site requirements. [192] Strommen, R. D., H. Horn, and K. R. Wold. FSM Non- Intrusive Monitoring of Internal Corrosion, Erosion and Cracking in Subsea Pipelines and Flowlines. Proc., ASPECT ‘96: Advances in Subsea Pipeline Engineering and Technology, Society for Underwater Technology, London, 1996, pp. 25–39. Field Signature Method is a monitoring technique of both general and localized corrosion, erosion, and cracking in steel and metal structures, piping systems, and vessels. It is commercially available for a variety of applications, one being corrosion monitoring in buried pipelines. [193] Porter, P. Use of Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) for the Inspection of Pipelines and Storage Tanks. SPIE, Non- destructive Evaluation of Aging Utilities, Vol. 2454, May 1995, pp. 172–184. The MFL technique has been used to inspect operating pipelines and aboveground storage tanks. The technique has been adapted for the inspection of in-service distribu- tion pipelines. [194] Skarda, B. C. Water Pipe Network—Future Strategy: Detection and Prevention of External Corrosion in Zurich. Water Supply, Vol. 12, No. 3–4, 1994, pp.139–150. The annual repair costs amounting to approximately 7% of the Zurich Water Supply turnover are too high. External corrosion/settlement, which is responsible for 90% of the 600 to 800 damaged pipes, is attributed to the combined effect of corrosion currents from tramlines, reinforced con- crete structures, and macroelements. These are accelerated by aggressive, partly water-saturated heterogeneous soils and

101galvanic compounds, mainly earthing installations. Coun- termeasures are comprised in the Zurich Pipe Network Strategy and in the long-term financial plan. Only the best pipe network material is good enough. [195] Weil, G., and K. L. Coble. Infrared Scanning Finds Sewer Weak Spots. Operations Forum, Vol. 2, No. 11, Nov. 1985, pp. 12–15. St. Louis Metropolitan Sewer District had sewers inspected for leaks with infrared technology. Miscellaneous Articles [196] Automation Blessing: Self-Healing Pipes. InTech, Feb. 2007, 1 p. Artificial platelets (small pieces of polymeric or elastomeric material) are inserted into the pipeline upstream and are carried by the flow of the fluid down the pipe toward the leak. There they clog up the escaping fluid and “heal” the leak. The platelets vary in size from approximately 0.01 in. to 1.97 in., with shapes ranging from discs to cubes. They can be used for locating the leaks as well. [197] Elmer, R. Low-Mileage Line Benefits from Smart Pig- ging. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Vol. 230, No. 12, Dec. 2003, pp. 20–23. Smart pigs are highly sophisticated in-line inspection tools. Contracted by Kirkland, Washington–based National Energy Systems Company (NESCO) at a cost of over $250,000, they are used to thoroughly inspect nearly 3.7 miles of 8-in. underground gas supply pipeline con- nected to the natural gas–fired power plant. [198] Hare, S., R. Case, and B. Snodgrass. Smart Pigging Proves Useful Inspecting Deepwater Tiebacks. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Vol. 230, No. 12, Dec. 2003, pp. 24–28. A recent project in the Gulf of Mexico demonstrated that deepwater tiebacks can be cost-effectively inspected as part of routine pigging runs. The integrity management capabil- ity was shown during a recent first-time inspection of the Canyon Express flowlines operated by Total E&P USA, Inc., using Weatherford Pipeline & Specialty Services’ SAAM[R] smart utility pigging technology. [199] Clarke, I. Trunk Main Leak Location—Development of a New Locator System. Proc., No-Dig International, Vol. 11, No. 12, Dec. 2000, pp. 24–25. The development and application of a new in-pipe leak detection system is described. [200] Hayward, P. CCTV & Inspection Systems. No-Dig International, Vol. 8, No. 6, June 1997, pp. 24–29. Utilities Mapping These references provide information on how to create, update, store, and retrieve records of location/type of existing utilities.Reports [201] Geospatial Information & Technology Association. Geospatial Technology Report 2006–2007. Geospatial Information & Technology Association, Aurora, Colo., 2007. The report contains detailed information on the complete- ness, complexity, and direction of GIS projects being imple- mented at nearly 400 infrastructure-based organizations. The 2006 report includes some new information such as budget information for 2006, project expenditure details, mainte- nance cycles, and so forth. The executive summary is avail- able online. [202] Rogers, C. D. F. Mapping the Underworld—UK Utili- ties Mapping. Proc., 11th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Columbus, Ohio, June 2006, 4 pp. Mapping the Underworld, a major U.K. initiative to improve the way buried utilities are located and mapped and to improve the way information is shared, is described. [203] Transportation Research Board. Research Results Digest 310: Integrating Geospatial Technologies into the ROW Data-Management Process. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., Dec. 2006, 13 pp. This digest presents the key findings from a project on inte- grating geospatial technologies into the right-of-way data- management process. [204] Transportation Research Board. Geospatial Informa- tion Technologies for Asset Management. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., Oct. 2006, 78 pp. This report is the proceedings of a peer exchange held in Kansas City, Missouri, October 30–31, 2005. The peer exchange focused on moving spatial technology applications to the next level by managing change, data integration, and communication. Participants at the exchange identified research to address three areas of interest: temporal issues, symbology, and data and visualization models. The roles of national organizations in sharing best practices and in pro- moting standards and open data architectures were also explored. [205] Transportation Research Board. Integrating Geospacial Technologies into the ROW Data-Management Process. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., June 2006, 251 pp. ROW issues commonly cause project delay and increased costs. While many state DOTs use technology such as CADD to draft ROW plans, the final, approved plans are often man- ually recorded and filed on paper or Mylar. The automation of ROW functions and development of data-integration models using existing technology, including geospatial appli- cations, are needed to enable multiple users to access the ROW information quickly and easily. The objectives of this research were to (1) identify the data elements needed to be included in a data model for a ROW information system that

102includes a geospatial component and (2) provide examples of return on investment when geospatial capabilities are added to such systems. [206] United Kingdom Water Industry Research. National Underground Assets Group: Capturing, Recording, Stor- ing and Sharing Underground Asset Information—A Review of Current Practice and Future Requirements. Ref: 06/WM/12/13, UKWIR, 2006. The National Underground Assets Group is sponsoring the National Referencing Standards Project, Phase 1 of which aims to develop methodologies, standards, and best practices that address the short-term standardization needs to 2008 for capturing, recording, storing, and sharing underground asset information. This report makes a series of recommendations for a mandatory revised records code of practice, and a mandatory national standard high-level framework to enable effective deployment of the new code based on a user survey of a representative sample of utilities and highway authorities. [207] Cullen, M. Use of Common Framework for Positioning Referencing of Buried Assets. Institution of Civil Engi- neers, 2005. This report gave recommendations as to what information should be kept by buried-assets owners. [208] Institution of Civil Engineers. Use of a Common Frame- work for Positional Referencing of Buried Assets. Buried Services Working Group Report, Institution of Civil Engineers, United Kingdom, Jan. 2005, 21 pp. This report examines the status of buried services and calls for a standard approach to the way buried services are located and recorded. The recommendation is to establish a common framework with all geospatial data recorded using the digital national framework (DNF) system. The DNF is a tool that generates all coordinates using the same datum to provide a consistent method of identifying and reusing geo- graphical information. Common encoding standards enable users to reference their own geospatial content to a definitive geographic base. All information can then be recorded within the geographical information system (GIS). This enables buried apparatus to be identified, cata- logued (for example, listed as a water main), and referenced to the responsible body (with emergency contact details). Location data can also be recorded to an absolute accuracy. This data then works with related datasets to ensure inter- operability, consistency, and internal integrity. The report also recommends that all new installations or replacements should be recorded three-dimensionally rather than two- dimensionally within three years (also recommended in the Traffic Management Act), that a specialist dedicated cham- pion for the continued development of a common frame- work must be established, and that transferable recorded data should identify the top of the buried item. [209] Colorado City Ordinance Requires Permit Applicants to Map ROW’s. Underground Focus, Vol. 17, No. 7, Oct. 2003, pp.8–9. The ultimate solution to preventing damages to vital sub- surface infrastructure is to know where all the undergroundlines are positioned, so that excavation equipment does not hit the lines. That is easier said than done, but Greenwood Village, Colorado, has developed a workable solution that is now in the second year of implementation. [210] American Society of Civil Engineers. Standard Guide- lines for the Collection and Depiction of Existing Subsur- face Utility Data. ASCE Standard No. CI/ASCE 38-02, ASCE, Reston, Va., 2002, 20 pp. This ASCE standard presents a credible system for classify- ing the quality of utility location information that is placed in design plans. The standard addresses issues such as how utility information can be obtained, what technologies are available to obtain that information, how that information can be conveyed to the information users, who should be responsible for typical collection and depiction tasks, what factors determine which utility quality level attribute to assign to data, and what the relative costs and benefits of the various quality levels are. Used as a reference or as part of a specification, the standard will assist engineers, project and utility owners, and constructors in developing strate- gies to reduce risk by improving the reliability of informa- tion on existing subsurface utilities in a defined manner. [211] Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council’s Programme Network in Trenchless Technology. Under- ground Mapping, Pipeline Location Technologies and Condition Assessment. University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, March 2002, 77 pp. This report aims to describe the various techniques available for buried infrastructure location and condition assessment. The report concludes on the research needs determined both at a university-industry workshop organized by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council’s Pro- gramme Network in Trenchless Technology (NETTWORK) and drawn from research reports that have addressed the efficacy of the various techniques. [212] Geospatial Information and Technology Association. The Geospatial Technology Report 2000. GITA, Aurora, CO, 71 pp. This report presents a survey of organizations implementing geospatial information technologies. It provides insights to the technologies the GITA members are using as well as applications they are implementing. It discusses land-base maintenance and accuracy issues, sophistication of facility conversion, and the integration of applications with geo- spatial technology. [213] Wood, P. Application Integration for Improved Utility Operations. Proc., AWWA Computer Simulation Con- ference (CSC) 1994, 9 pp. Control and Supervisory Council and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are designed for process control, operator interface, data collection, and reporting. System managers have a wealth of real-time and historical data about the process being monitored and controlled. More often than not, the stored information is never retrieved. Many utilities are asking how information collected by control systems can be productively used. Managers, engineers, maintenance

103supervisors, and secretaries are burdened and frustrated with reading data from reports generated by applications used by other groups and entering that data into their computers. This paper considers methods for implementing integration. [214] Pickering, D., J. M. Park, and D. H. Bannister. Utility Mapping and Record Keeping for Infrastructure. Urban Management Programme, The World Bank, Washing- ton D.C., 1993, 84 pp. This discussion paper reviews recent developments in urban infrastructure recordkeeping and mapping—a key compo- nent of good management of low-cost sewerage systems. [215] Arnett, C. J., and R. A. Fleck. Automated Mapping/ Facilities Management/Geographical Information Sys- tem. AWWA Computer Simulation Conference (CSC) 1992, 17 pp. In developing an integrated automated mapping/facilities management/geographical information system (AM/FM/ GIS) approach, various options available for developing a computerized mapping system must be evaluated. The AM/FM/GIS system would allow for an efficient manage- ment of utilities information in both the water distribution and wastewater collection systems. Thorough discussions and evaluations with company staff and outside consultants are necessary to develop an overall technical approach designed to assist in developing this computerized mapping system. The information discussed is useful in the project development. Hardware and software solutions are recom- mended as well as steps necessary for implementation of the overall AM/FM/GIS. [216] Purves, A. J., and A. Cesario. AM/FM/GIS and CAD Implementation within the Water Industry. AWWA Computer Simulation Conference (CSC) 1992, 8 pp. A survey of the American Water Works Association (AWWA) utility membership has been conducted by the AWWA Computer Assisted Design Committee. The survey objectives were to determine the status of AM/FM, GIS, and CAD implementation within the AWWA membership; identify comparable utilities undertaking similar efforts; and illustrate level of interest in technology. [217] Marx, P. Implementing an AM/FM/GIS for Seattle’s Municipal Water Utility. AWWA Computer Simulation Conference (CSC) 1991, 16 pp. This paper describes how the fast-growing City of Seattle, Washington, is using GIS technology in many departments, including water and electric. First, a common land database was formed, which contained land-specific data common for many city departments; at the same time, water and electric database and map development were under way. Planning and development activities of GIS in relation to the water department are discussed in some detail; an appendix gives the process in the form of a flow chart. Nine lessons learned are summarized. [218] Zurawski, R. Lewis Automated Mapping System One Small Step for Mapping; One Giant Leap for Users:LAMS. AWWA Annual Conference and Exhibition (ACE) 1990, 12 pp. This paper describes the underground mapping system for NASA’s Lewis Research Center in Ohio. The center covers 350 acres, and modifications to the underground utility sys- tem are frequent. Many of the system drawings have been revised more than 30 times, rendering them difficult to read. A mapping system developed at the University of Akron, Ohio, was used to convert the drawings to a computerized mapping system. The paper details how the system was con- verted and describes the final results. In addition to basic maps, custom color plots will be available at any scale, of any area, in a range of colors, and of any combination of the 85 designated layers. Future enhancements include additional layers and programming to allow the maps to be updated without use of a pencil or by manually digitizing survey data. Add-on programs have been used for analysis on the water system and will be used for analysis of three sewer systems. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [219] Thomas, A. M., C. D. F. Rogers, N. Metje, and D. N. Chapman. Soil Electromagnetic Mapping for Enhanced GPR Utility Location. Proc., ISTT NoDig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007, S2–03. Higher frequency GPR is required for detection of small util- ities, but this greatly limits the depth of signal penetration. Wide signal bandwidth is required to balance resolution and penetration results. Mapping of soil electromagnetic proper- ties over large geographical areas is difficult and requires a vast number of measurements to achieve even the most basic geospatial resolution. A U.K. research project, Mapping the Underworld, explores the possibility of using data for selected urban mapping of GPR relevant soil properties. [220] Yamashita, H., H. Tanaka, S. Baba, and Y. Yamazaki. Development of Conduit Position Measurement Tech- nology Using a Gyroscope and GPS. Proc., ISTT NoDig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007, S2–01. A new conduit position measurement technology eliminates the necessity of aboveground measurement and can accu- rately and efficiently obtain conduit route data with absolute coordinates. This technology runs a gyroscope inside a con- duit to measure the conduit route and uses GPS technology to establish absolute coordinates for manhole and conduit positions. [221] Bassi, R. Reports on Radio Frequency Identification. IT and Construction Process, No. 67, Oct. 2006, p. 6. The final report will give a brief introduction to radio frequency identification (RFID) tagging and wireless technologies and will highlight the business benefits they can offer to the construction industry. RFID, or “smart tag- ging,” has been developed in the retail sector to track pro- duce through the logistics and sale stages of its life. [222] Booth, S. Mapping Four Billion Buried Assets. Engi- neering Surveying Showcase, Oct. 2006, pp. 14–16.

104There are currently two major research programs under way in the U.K. about properly locating and recording the posi- tion of buried services. Mapping the Underworld is a four- year program aiming to develop technologies to help locate buried infrastructure. Visualizing Integrated Information on Buried Assets to Reduce Streetworks (VISTA) aims to develop a simple format for recording the position of all buried services within a 3-D coordinated reference frame. It brings together the ordnance survey, utilities, contractors, and technology companies. [223] Roberts, G., X. Meng, A. Taha, and J. P. Montillet. The Location and Positioning of Buried Pipes and Cables in Built Up Areas. XXIII FIG Congress: Shaping the Change, Munich, Germany, Oct. 2006. The research looking at the feasibility of producing a mam- moth subterranean map of the U.K., which would show where all of its buried assets are located, is described [224] Zembillas, N. M., and B. J. Beyer. Proactive Utilities Management: Conflict Analysis & Subsurface Utility Engineering. Proc., NASTT No-Dig 2005, Orlando, Fla., April 2005. Subsurface utility engineering (SUE) is the branch of engi- neering that specializes in utility identification, location, and advising. An organizational tool for SUE is conflict analysis. Conflict analysis provides a greater sense of coordination by working with utility companies, designers, transportation departments, and contractors and employing a powerful new data management tool, the conflict matrix. SUE and conflict analysis form the link of proactive utilities management that efficiently reduces needless utility relocations, minimizes utility complications, and diminishes overall cost. [225] Shellshear, D. Geophysical Methods for Defect Mapping and Pipeline Integrity Surveys—Geophysical Methods for Defect Mapping and Utility Risk Analysis. Proc., ISTT NO-DIG 2000, Perth, Western Australia, Oct. 2000, pp. 296–300. GPR systems are commonly available to assist with non- destructive testing of pipeline and sewer system utilities. Sev- eral additional geophysical techniques have been extensively tested in Brisbane to complement CCTV and radar data. Encouraging results have been obtained with transmission electron miscroscopy (TEM) resistivity data to provide an indication of structural integrity in terms of variations in sub- strate resistivity. High-definition seismic systems are required to provide more detail on the nature of the target, and new research programs have been developed for this purpose. [226] Morgan, A., and N. Taylor. The Technical and Eco- nomic Case for the Use of Three-Dimensional Map- ping for the Installation of Electric Power Cables. Proc., NASTT NoDig ’96, New Orleans, La., March–April 1996, pp. 677–687. The paper reviews the experimental work carried out by MEB on the practical usage of three-dimensional mapping. Evidence is provided to show how the technique has provedto be an effective preplanning tool that has significantly reduced cable installation costs and increased the use of trenchless technology. [227] Smit, A. L. Utility Base Map for Rotterdam. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 90, April 1990, Doelen, Netherlands, 4 pp. The utility base map (UBP) is a special map that shows the exact X, Y location of all utilities in the entire city. More information about the depth of existing utilities could be needed when using trenchless technology. [228] Moutal, H. Automated Mapping and Facilities Manage- ment Approach for Underground Utilities. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 88, Washington, D.C., Oct. 1988, 10 pp. This document is a case study of utility mapping. New York City has over 6,000 miles of sewers recorded on some 60,000 drawings of varying size, scale, and level of detail. In 1983, the city embarked on automated mapping/facilities manage- ment program for sewers. Sewer maps were entered on a CADD system and a sewer database. [229] Hooper, D., and A. N. Sinclair. Digital Mapping for Watermains in Torbay. WES Summer Conference, Torquay, Devon, May 1987. The development of a digital mapping and database system for water supply and distribution is described. The proce- dures adopted in producing the user requirement specifica- tion and preparing the existing records for conversion to digital form are outlined, and the manual digitization meth- ods used for data conversion are detailed. Articles [230] Clarke, I. The Changing Market for Ground Investiga- tion and Utility Mapping Systems. No-Dig International, Vol. 13, No. 10, Oct. 2002, pp. 18–21. A questionnaire was designed to give an indication of the changing face of the ground investigation and utility map- ping market worldwide. The questionnaire was circulated to various survey systems manufacturers and contactors. [231] Morgan, A. Millennium Products Status for 3D Map- ping Systems. No-Dig International, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1999, p. 26. Mapping technology is becoming increasingly important for utility installers. [232] Twohig, M. A. Utility Mapping the USA Way. No-Dig International, Vol. 9, No. 3, March 1998, pp. N7–N9. This article provides an overview of utility mapping and tracing in the U.S. [233] Naylor, R. J. A Graphic Information System for Utilities. Transactions of the Electric Supply Authority Engineers, Institute of New Zealand Inc., Vol. 56, 1986, pp. 55–69. This paper discusses how the department manages the net- work it has developed (now extends to some 1,305 miles and

105approximately 31 miles is added each year) and particularly how the plans are used to record the locations of the services. Other [234] VISTA. Seeing is Believing: Safely Exposing Buried Util- ities. VHS, 2001. Knowing the colors and meaning of utility markers is only part of the answer to safe, damage-free digging. Exposing buried utilities in a safe, efficient way is critical. This video covers one-call requirements, vacuum systems, damage response, open trenches, and hand digging. Guidance and Regulations for Utilities and ROW Guidelines/regulations are given as to where to place utilities within the right-of-way. Reports [235] Sinha, S. K., H. R. Thomas, M. C. Wang, and Y. J. Jung. Subsurface Utility Engineering Manual. FHWA-PA- 2007-510401-08, Pennsylvania Transportation Insti- tute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa., Aug. 2007, 136 pp. The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) has one of the largest construction programs in the U.S. Like many state departments of transportation, PennDOT is decentralized. The districts in Pennsylvania have consid- erable autonomy over the use of SUE design, construction, procurement, and other issues. Thus, the use of SUE is not uniform across the state, and on some projects SUE may not be effectively used. Project- and site-specific procedures are needed that can be used by the central office to encourage all districts to make wider use of SUE as a means of conveying the details of damage-prevention best practices so SUE can be used effectively. The objective of this project is to develop a SUE manual for PennDOT to assist department and consultant designers, utility relocation administrators, and others in identifying the appropriate levels of investigation needed to locate and designate underground utilities. [236] California Department of Occupational Safety and Health. Notice of Proposed Modification to California Code of Regulations, Title 8: Chapter 4, Subchapter 4, Arti- cle 6, Section 1541 of the Construction Safety Orders, Oct. 2006. http://www.dir.ca.gov/Title8/sub4.html. [237] Goodman, A. S., and M. Hastak. Infrastructure Planning Handbook. ASCE Press and McGraw Hill, Sept. 2006, 672 pp. The book features global case studies and numerous research resources, and it covers major infrastructure projects in con- text, master planning, infrastructure project performance,prioritization of projects and services, project finances and economics, environmental and social impacts, uncertainty and risk, and research for planning and analysis. [238] American Association of State Highway and Trans- portation Officials. Right of Way and Utilities Guidelines and Best Practices. Strategic Plan 4-4, AASHTO, Stand- ing Committee on Highways. Jan. 2004, 71 pp. One chapter describes best practices in utility mapping related to highway projects. Guidelines on how to address relocation of utilities during highway projects are also given. [239] Arboleda, C., H. Jeong, D. Abraham, S. Gokhale. Evalu- ation, Analysis, and Enhancement of INDOT’s Utility Accommodation Policy. FHWA/IN/JTRP-2004/22, Jan. 2004, 122 pp. The utility accommodation policy (UAP) is a collection of the regulations and practices to control the utility occu- pancy of all public highway rights-of-way under jurisdic- tion of the different states. UAPs not only help to regulate the installation of new utilities and the renovation of currently installed utilities by construction companies, subcontractors, and utilities companies, but also provide a framework to develop and preserve a safe roadside and to minimize possible interferences and impairment to the highway, its structures, appearance, safe operation, con- struction, and maintenance. The current utility accommo- dation policy of the State of Indiana was adopted on September 10, 1990. It was revised on March 26, 1998, to include the placement of telecommunication towers within highway right-of-way of partial or full-access control. In order to achieve an effective accommodation of existing and new utilities, Indiana Department of Transportation’s (INDOT) current UAP was revisited and analyzed by com- paring UAPs in Midwest states and incorporating experts opinions from INDOT and related industry. The advances in construction technologies such as trenchless technology and subsurface utility engineering, as well as the demands for new types of utilities, and issues related to right of way, permits, appurtenances, emergency responses, and so forth were analyzed. The implications of these were addressed in INDOT’s new UAP. [240] California Department of Transportation. Chapter 600: Utilities Permits. In Encroachment Permits Manual, 7th ed., 2002, 64 pp. This chapter addresses the initial placement, adjustment, relocation, and replacement of utility facilities in all state highways. [241] Chen, Q. Class Location Criteria for Gas Pipelines. PR- 244-0015, Pipeline Research Council International, Inc., 2002, 56 pp. Current standards and regulations for gas transmission pipelines classify pipeline corridors into location classes and specify design factors accordingly. The primary objective of this project was to examine the current class location system and develop supplementary criteria that would enhance

106pipeline safety by applying risk-based or reliability-based methods. [242] Brady, K. C., M. Burtwell, and J. C. Thomson. Mitigat- ing the Disruption Caused by Utility Street Works. TRL Limited Report No. 516, 2001, 35 pp. A summary of the findings of an international review of the policies and construction practices adopted for street works is provided in the report. A wide range of views was found regarding the “rights” of utilities to install and repair pipes and cables in public roads. The requirement and use of trenchless methods for utility street works varies according to, for example, the geographical and geological setting, but the most important factor was the existing pol- icy and legislation defining the rights of the utilities and the public. [243] American Water Works Association. Location of Utili- ties in Public Rights-of-Way—Examples from Various Cities. Feb. 2000, 22 pp. Many communities have established and successfully used location guidelines for utilities in their streets. This report highlights some examples of such guidelines (Phoenix, Ari- zona; Prow, California; Austin, Texas; Cincinnati, Ohio). [244] U.S. General Accounting Office. Impacts of Utility Relo- cations on Highway and Bridge Projects. GAO/RCED- 99-131, U.S. GAO, June 1999, 39 pp. Delays in highway and bridge projects caused by relocating of utilities and facilities were examined. The following were looked at: (1) Extent to which states experience such delays, and the causes and impacts of the delays; (2) Number of states that compensate construction con- tractors for the added costs incurred on their projects because of untimely relocations by utility companies; (3) Available technologies, such as subsurface utility engi- neering (SUE), that are being used during project design to reduce the number or impact of utility relocation delays; and (4) Mitigation methods that states are using (incentives, penalties, and litigation) to encourage or compel coopera- tion by utility companies that are relocating utilities on federal-aid highway and bridge projects. [245] Iseley, T., and S. B. Gokhale. NCHRP Synthesis of High- way Practice 242: Trenchless Installation of Conduits Beneath Roadways. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1997, 82 pp. This TRB report describes the trenchless installation tech- nologies (methods, materials, and equipment) currently employed by state DOTs and other agencies to install con- duits beneath roadways. [246] American Association of State Highway and Transporta- tion Officials. Guidance on Sharing Freeway and High-way Rights-Of-Way for Telecommunications. AASHTO, Washington, D.C., Aug. 1996, 44 pp. New communications networks are being built both in the public and private sector. There is interest in public-private arrangements where each party taps the special resources of the other. The private partner gains access to public ROW and the public partner gains access to some form of com- pensation: in-kind telecommunications facilities or service, cash, or both. Such partnerships are termed “shared resource” projects. These guidelines identify key elements involved in the implementation of shared resource projects. It is designed as an overview of steps and activities that are typically involved in the process. The guidance is descrip- tive rather than prescriptive. [247] American Public Works Association. Excavation in the Right-of-Way. APWA, Kansas City, Mo., 1996, 65 pp. This publication reviews the need for coordinating and reg- ulating activities within the public ROW and recommended guidelines for establishing the need implementation mech- anisms (with sample ordinances). It reviews the issues involved and includes examples of North American prac- tices to improve coordination efforts. [248] American Association of State Highway and Trans- portation Officials. A Guide for Accommodating Utilities Within Highway Right-of-Way. AASHTO, Washington, DC., 1994, 27 pp. The AASHTO guidelines in this publication help to develop and preserve safe highway operations and roadsides by (1) minimizing possible interference and impairment to the highway and its structures, (2) providing good appearance, and (3) minimizing maintenance. [249] Keating, A. D. Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Fla., 1994, 168 pp. This is a useful reference for people involved or interested in urban history or the technological infrastructure on which American cities are built. [250] United Kingdom Government. New Roads and Street Works Act (NRSWA) 1991 (c. 22)—Part III Street Works in England and Wales. 1991. http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ ACTS/acts1991. Section 79 of NRSWA specifies duties and liabilities of street-works undertakers. Section 80 requires that a utility carrying out works in the street, where another utility has been discovered, must make and keep a record of the location and nature of that utility and inform the street authority of the discovery. [251] U.S. Department of Transportation. Planning and Scheduling Work Zone Traffic Control. U.S. Federal Highway Administration, Implementation Package, FHWA-IP-81-6, User Guide, U.S. DOT, Washington, D.C., Oct. 1981, 66 pp.

107The primary objective of this guide is to provide highway agency decision makers with analytical procedures and deci- sion methodologies that can be applied in the early planning and design stages of a major street or highway project to select the most appropriate traffic control strategy to be implemented. The process should assist in formulating deci- sions regarding the type of work zone (lane closure, detour, crossover, etc.) which is most cost-effective for the project. [252] American Public Works Association and American Society of Civil Engineers. Accommodation of Utility Plant Within the Rights-Of-Way of Urban Streets and Highways. Manual of Improved Practice, APWA and ASCE, New York, N.Y., 1974, 101 pp. This manual has been prepared as a guide to local govern- mental agencies, other regulating agencies, utilities, con- sultants, and the public. The manual describes current practice and recommendations for improved practices. [253] American Public Works Association. Feasibility of Util- ity Tunnels in Urban Areas. APWA-SR-39, Chicago, Ill., Feb. 1971. This report is a comprehensive examination of the techni- cal, legal, and economic aspects of placing urban utilities in tunnel structures. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [254] Quiroga, C., D. Ford, T. Taylor, S. Kranc, and E. Kraus. Construction Specification Framework for Utility Instal- lations. Proc., 87th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., Jan. 2008, 21 pp. Summarized is the work completed to develop a prototype framework of construction specification requirements for utility installations, with a focus on water, sanitary sewer, and communication specifications. It includes five groups of specifications: earth work, pipes and boxes, appurtenances, other, and general (that includes specifications such as mobilization and traffic control, which highway construc- tion contracts typically include but, at the same time, are relevant to the utility relocation process). The framework uses tables that summarize the main characteristics of pro- posed new or modified standard specifications and includes a listing of pay items, subsidiary items, and corresponding measurement units. The framework also includes specifica- tion requirements. [255] Witing, P. Integrated Utility Planning: Combining Greenways and Utility Corridors. Proc., Pipelines 2004 International Conference, San Diego, Calif., Aug. 2004, pp. 1–10. Utility corridors traditionally have been engineered for the purpose of accommodating sewer, water, and other utility lines and providing access for their maintenance. This paper illustrates the subtle complexities introduced when a green- way is designed and constructed in conjunction with a utility project.[256] Worlton, M. A., and B. Squire. Keys to Successful Utility Coordination. Proc., Pipelines 2004 International Confer- ence, San Diego, Calif., Aug. 2004, 4 pp. Utility crossings projects may encounter crossings with electrical, fiber optic, natural gas, and a host of other utili- ties. When poorly identified, each utility crossing poses a liability to engineers and a threat to the safety of contrac- tors. Although this thesis is well established by case history, steps may be taken to avoid new utility-related construction disasters. [257] Sterling, R. Direct and Indirect Benefits of Underground Placement of Infrastructure. AUA North American Tun- neling Conference 2002, Seattle, Wash., May 2002. This paper discusses the impact of underground infrastruc- ture on the quality and livability of cities, how the under- ground utility network develops as a city grows, and the importance of planning the use of underground space beneath public rights of way. [258] Zimmerman, R. Social Implications of Infrastructure Network Interactions. J. of Urban Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3, Dec. 2001, pp. 97–119. Urbanized and soon-to-be urbanizing areas are increasingly dependent upon infrastructure transmission and distribu- tion networks for the provision of essential public resources and services for transportation, energy, communications, water supply, and wastewater collection and treatment. In large part, the increasing spread of population settlements at the periphery of cities and the increasing density and vertical integration of urban cores have increased reliance upon the connectivity that these networks provide. These infrastruc- ture networks are, in turn, dependent upon one another, both functionally and spatially, in very complex ways, and that interdependence is increased as new capacity-enhancing infrastructure technologies are developed. The extent of these dependencies appears to be escalating, and it results in interactions among the systems and produces effects upon environments that are difficult to predict. [259] Sterling, R. The Value of Land Beneath Public Rights- Of-Way. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 98, Lausanne, Switzer- land, June 1998, pp. 41–50. Although issues surrounding property rights for under- ground space are of general interest to this paper, the prin- cipal issue of concern is whether underground space beneath public right-of-way has its own intrinsic value which should be taken into account in decisions about how such space should be used for the public good. [260] Sterling, R. L. Indirect Costs of Utility Construction and Repair. Proc., No-Dig 97 Conference, Genoa, Italy, April 1997. This paper examines the indirect and social costs of utility work beneath public streets and highways. Issues examined include traffic congestions, environmental impacts, road pavement damage, and the effective use of the space beneath public rights-of-way.

108[261] Sterling, R. L. Indirect Costs of Utility Placement and Repair Beneath Streets. Final Report, University of Min- nesota, Minneapolis, March 1994, 52 pp. The report examines policy issues related to the placement of utilities beneath public rights-of-way. The principal issues discussed are recognition of the present and future value of the space beneath public rights-of-way in space allocation decisions, methodologies for assessing the full societal costs of utility work in congested roadways, imple- mentation of contractual practices and fee structures to mitigate conditions involving high societal costs, and the work that would be necessary to attempt to include the impact of utility cuts on life-cycle pavements costs. [262] Slee, L. G., and A. W. G. Thijsse. Integration and Plan- ning of the Infrastructure: The Policy Pursued by Rotter- dam. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 90, Rotterdam, Netherlands, April 1990, 5 pp. The coordination and integration of activities related to road surfacing and underground infrastructures is generally a complicated process in urban areas where there are a large number of participants, each responsible for the installation and maintenance of his own facility. This paper discusses in more detail the measures in Rotterdam, Netherlands, for good coordination and integration. Other [263] Maine DOT Utility Coordination Process. http://www. maine.gov/mdot/utilities/coordination/utilitycoordi- nationprocess.php. A typical utility coordination process is outlined as it relates to a project development process funded with state and/or federal dollars administered through the Maine Depart- ment of Transportation. Market Issues Related to Utility Technologies These references provide information on the extent of the underground utility network, demand for locating services, and costs of damage and delays. Reports [264] Transportation Research Board. Research Results Digest 78: Managing Capital Costs of Major Federally Funded Public Transportation Projects. TCRP G-07, TRB, Wash- ington, D.C., Sept. 2006, 12 pp. This is a summary of the contractor’s final report. [265] Booz Allen Hamilton. TCRP Report Web Only Docu- ment 31: Managing Capital Costs of Major Federally Funded Public Transportation Projects. TRB, Washing- ton, D.C., Nov. 2005, 297 pp. The report explores strategies, tools, and techniques to bet- ter estimate, contain, and manage capital costs of federallyfunded public transportation projects based, in part, on the experience of the case study projects. [266] United Kingdom Water Industry Research. Minimising Street Works Disruption: The Real Costs of Street Works to the Utility Industry and Society. Ref: 05/WM/12/8, 2004. The program identified a group of projects that looked at how work could be improved just by making better use of current technology. One project was identified to develop a better understanding of what street works cost the utility industry and what they cost society in general. This report details the results from that project. It reviews literature on the subject and endeavors to estimate both the direct cost of street works to utilities and the costs of street works to society. It identifies the ways in which these costs can be minimized, as well as gaps in knowledge requiring further research. [267] Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal. Electric- ity Undergrounding in New South Wales. IPRAT of New South Wales, Australia, May 2002, 80 pp. Costs, benefits, and funding of undergrounding electric cables in Australia are reviewed. [268] U.S. Department of Transportation. National Trans- mission Grid Study. May 2002, 108 pp. This report is a study of benefits of establishing a national electricity transmission grid and to identify transmission bottlenecks and measures to address them. [269] U.S. General Accounting Office. Impacts of Utility Relocations on Highway and Bridge Projects. GAO/ RCED-99-131, U.S. GAO, June 1999, 39 pp. Delays in highway and bridge projects caused by relocating of utilities and facilities were examined. The following were looked at: (1) Extent to which states experience such delays, and the causes and impacts of the delays; (2) Number of states that compensate construction con- tractors for the added costs incurred on their projects because of untimely relocations by utility companies; (3) Available technologies, such as subsurface utility engi- neering (SUE), that are being used during project design to reduce the number or impact of utility relocation delays; and (4) Mitigation methods that states are using (incentives, penalties, and litigation) to encourage or compel coopera- tion by utility companies that are relocating utilities on federal-aid highway and bridge projects. [270] Office of Pipeline Safety. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Pipeline Mapping. OPS, Sept. 1999, 43 pp. This is an appendix to the OPS 1999 final report, A Collabo- rative Framework for Office of Pipeline Safety Cost-Benefit Analyses. The objective of the workgroup was to illustrate, test, and refine the OPS cost-benefit framework, and pipeline mapping was chosen for analysis because extensive

109cost data are available that describe a voluntary pipeline mapping program. [271] Purdue University. Cost Savings on Highway Projects Utilizing Subsurface Utility Engineering. No. DTFH61- 96-00090, Prepared for U.S. Federal Highway Admin- istration, Dec. 1999, 174 pp. Several states have programs whereby the state DOT con- tracts SUE providers to map utilities on their projects. Employing SUE can reduce costs and delays on highway projects. This study provided independent review and study of these cost savings. The study concludes that the system- atic use of SUE should result in minimum national savings of approx $1 billion annually. [272] Automobile Association. Digging up the Roads. From a Survey “Living with the Car,” P. (01236) 493014, Auto- mobile Association Group Public Policy, Hampshire, U.K., 1997. This document is referenced in bibliography entry 62, Far- rimond 2004. [273] American Public Works Association. Managing Utility Cuts. APWA, 1997, 68 pp. The report examined procedures and selected case studies of utility cut excavations and restorations. It concluded that none of the reviewed studies offers a standard specification for restoring cuts or a universal method for addressing the cost of lost pavement life. Utility locating procedures and equipment were reviewed on three pages. [274] Heinrich, J. Assessment of the Cost of Underground Util- ity Damages. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, Aug. 1996, 17 pp. [275] U.S. Department of Transportation. The Status of the Nation’s Highways, Bridges, and Transit: Conditions and Performance. Report to U.S. Congress, Jan. 1993, 238 pp. Detailed information on system characteristics, finance, and trends in condition and performance is provided. The report also includes capital investment requirements from all sources to either maintain or systematically improve current overall system condition and performance for the period 1992–2011. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [276] Von Winterfeldt, D. The Costs and Benefits of Con- verting Overhead Electrical Power Lines to Under- ground Designs. Proc., AUA North American Tunneling Conference 2002, Seattle, Wash., May 2002. [277] Zimmerman, R. Implications of Trends in and Oppor- tunities for Underground of Utility Distribution Sys- tems for Urban Planning. Proc., AUA North American Tunneling Conference 2002, Seattle, Wash., May 2002.[278] Sterling, R. L. Indirect Costs of Utility Construction and Repair. Proc., ISTT No-Dig 97, Genoa, Italy, April 1997, International Society for Trenchless Technology, London. This paper examines the indirect and social costs of utility work beneath public streets and highways. Issues examined include traffic congestions, environmental impacts, road pavement damage, and the effective use of the space beneath public rights-of-way. [279] Khoghali, W., and E. H. H. Mohamed. Managing Util- ity Cuts: Issues and Considerations. Innovations in Urban Infrastructure 1999, Seminar at the APWA Inter- national Public Works Congress and Exhibition, Den- ver, Colo., Sept. 1999, 11 pp. The research project presented here was developed in response to the need of improving the long-term perfor- mance of restored utility cuts by identifying and resolving technical difficulties involved in the restoration process. Articles [280] Griffin, J. Complex Crossbore Issue. Underground Con- struction, April 2007, pp. 19–22. Described are recent significant developments related to the issue of who should be responsible for locating and marking laterals. Two industry associations have released position statements supporting legislation requiring loca- tion and marking of sewer laterals (Distribution Contrac- tors Association and National Utility Contractors Association). Many contractors and others in the industry are increasingly active and vocal about the seriousness of the issue. [281] Wimberley, R., and M. Kulikowski. Mayday 23: World Population Becomes More Urban Than Rural. Press Release, North Carolina State University, May 2007, 2 pp. Wednesday, May 23, 2007, represents a major demographic shift, according to scientists from North Carolina State University and the University of Georgia. For the first time in human history, the earth’s population is more urban than rural. [282] Casper, M. Sinha’s $787,000 NSF Grant to Benefit Nation’s Infrastructure. News Release, Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, Jan. 2006. The sustainable water infrastructure management system (SWIMS) investigates how an innovative evaluation sys- tem, renewal engineering, and visualization system can be integrated for efficient water and wastewater pipeline management. Damage Prevention References in this section provide information on damage prevention, procedures for one-call services, hand dig require- ments, and so forth.

110Reports [283] United Kingdom Department for Transport. Working Together: A Good Practice Guide to Managing Works in the Street. Department for Transport, Welsh Assembly Government, London, May 2007, 33 pp. This guide shares good practice for coordinating and man- aging works on the street. It gives examples of how promot- ers can carry out works with the least disruption to highway users, frontages, and local communities to improve and maintain the road network. [284] Common Ground Alliance. CGA DIRT Analysis and Recommendations for Calendar Year 2005. Volume II, Dec. 2006, 53 pp. Stakeholders throughout the U.S. voluntarily provided the data for analysis in this report. CGA collected and summa- rized the data and published this report to facilitate improvements in safety and damage prevention efforts. [285] Technologies for Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration. Effectiveness of Prevention Meth- ods for Excavation Damage. Completed Research #147, DTRS56-04-T-0006, C-FER Technologies for PHMSA, 2006. A new fault tree model was developed that estimates hit fre- quency due to third-party excavation based on pipeline condition and prevention practices. In addition to the eval- uation of prevention effectiveness, this model can be used to facilitate the selection of the most cost-effective preven- tion methods and to evaluate risk and reliability of existing or new pipelines. [286] Gas Technology Institute. Third-Party Damage Real- Time Monitoring. Ongoing Research, GTI, Chicago, Ill., 2005. Transmission pipelines are occasionally subjected to large impact forces from third-party excavating equipment. A system that can detect the resulting contact and quickly alert the pipeline operator would be developed. [287] U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Pipeline Safety. Common Ground: Study of One-Call Systems and Damage Prevention Best Practices. Aug. 1999, 252 pp. Best practices in preventing damage to underground utili- ties were identified and validated. Separate chapters cover one-call centers, locating and marking, and mapping. Emerging technologies are reviewed in the appendix. [288] Directional Crossing Contractors Association. Guide- lines for Successful Directional Crossing Survey Standards. DCCA, Oct. 1998, 6 pp. Preconstruction design covers the issue of locating existing utilities. Pipe locators, GPR, seismic survey, and non- destructive air/hydro-vacuum excavation are described. [289] National Transportation Safety Board. Safety Recom- mendation. NTSB, Washington, D.C., Jan. 1998, 16 pp.[290] National Transportation Safety Board. Protecting Public Safety Through Excavation Damage Prevention. NTSB, Washington, D.C., 1997, 114 pp. One chapter is focused on the accuracy of information regarding buried facilities, existing underground detection technologies and mapping, and SUE. [291] Doctor, R. H., and N. A. Dunker. Field Evaluation of a Fiber Optic Intrusion Detection System—FOIDS. Final Report, GRI-95/0533, Dec. 1995, 90 pp. An early warning fiber optic detection system was tested and evaluated. The technology uses a fiber optic cable that lies parallel to the pipeline and helps protect the line by sensing and detecting potentially destructive intru- sions by signaling the operator. Buried sensors use light waves to sensitize the fiber optic sensor over long distances. The system can monitor long sections of pipeline without needing electrical power or connections in the monitored area. [292] Doctor, R. H., N. A. Dunker, and N. M. Santee. Third- Party Damage Prevention Systems, GRI-95/0316, NICOR Technologies, Oct. 1995, 199 pp. The objective of this project was to identify process improvements and develop technology options that will increase safety and reduce costs associated with third- party damage to underground facilities. Recommenda- tions to reduce third-party damage and increase safety were made. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [293] Foillard, R., H. Moussard, and J. Butterworth. Contin- uous Monitoring of Railway Tracks under the Impact of Horizontal Boring, Micro Tunnelling or Directional Drilling Works. Proc., ISTT NoDig 2007, Rome, Sept. 2007, S2_10. The OSMOS fiber optic system is a surveillance system that can be used for continuous monitoring of railway tracks when trenchless construction is conducted underneath. The system is installed before work begins and left in place during and after the work. The strain in a system of sensors is continuously monitored, informing immediately of any movements of tracks that could lead to accidents. [294] Utility Notification Center of Colorado. Perspectives on Facility Damage—2005. UNCC, Sept. 2006, 76 pp. [295] Nagel, R. G. Understanding the Significance, Benefits of Subsurface Utility Engineering. Proc., UCT ’04, Hous- ton, Tex., Jan. 2004, 47 pp. [296] Noone, J. F. Use of ASCE 38-02 and Subsurface Utility Engineering for Better Design, Cost Savings and Dam-

111age Prevention in Airport Planning and Design. Proc., Pipelines 2004 International Conference, San Diego, Calif., Aug. 2004. ASCE/CI 38-02 applies to projects where existing utilities will be impacted and requires that the project approach used by engineers be modified in order to conform to the standard. The paper reviews the standard guideline and proceeds to discuss how to incorporate it and SUE services into an airport project. [297] Holmes, P. Impacting Issues of Digging and Working Around Buried Utilities. Proc., Damage Prevention Con- ference and Exposition, Tampa, Fla., Dec. 2003, 12 pp. [298] Vick, J. K. SUE = Increased Safety, Fewer Claims and Lower Costs. Proc., UCT ’03, Houston, Tex., Jan. 2003. A lack of reliable information on the location of under- ground utilities can result in costly conflicts, damages, delays, service disruptions, redesigns, claims, and even injuries and lost lives during construction activities. While the location of subsurface utilities might be found on plans and records, experience has often shown that the utility locations are not exactly as recorded or the records do not fully account for the buried utility systems. This may be especially true of our nation’s aged roadway infrastructure. [299] Milliken, B. How Accurate are Locates? Proc., Damage Prevention Convention, Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 1998. [300] Nelson, R., and M. Daly. Creating a Major Emphasis on Damage Prevention. Damage Prevention Convention, Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 1998. [301] Stinson, W. Preventing Damage to Unlocatable Infra- structure. Damage Prevention Convention, Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 1998. [302] Brown, J. A., and J. R. Sherburn. A GIS Based One-Call Management System for BP Oil Pipeline Co. in the State of Ohio. Proc., URISA 1995 Annual Conference: Urban and Regional Information Systems Association, Wash- ington, D.C., 1995, pp. 1:335–342. Nearly 900 miles of BP Oil Pipeline Company’s pipeline network in Ohio is being used as the pilot for this new system. [303] Anspach, J. H. Subsurface Utility Engineering: A Dam- age Prevention Tool for Trenchless Technology. Proc., NASTT No-Dig ’95, Toronto, Canada, April–May 1995, pp. 2C1:1–8. [304] Miller, J. R. Subsurface Exploration in Support of Trenchless Excavation. Proc., NASTT No-Dig ’94, Dal- las, Tex., April 1994, 10 pp. Colorado School of Mines has created a test bed where targets are placed at depth and various subsurface search systems can be evaluated.[305] Clow, D. G. Damage to Buried Plant Causes and Pre- vention. NJUG Conference 1987, National Joint Utility Group, 1987. Miscellaneous Articles [306] Congress Passes Pipeline Safety Bill. American Gas, Feb. 2007, 43 pp. With passage of the Pipeline Inspection, Protection, Enforcement and Safety Act on December 7, 2006, Con- gress for the first time gave the U.S. DOT broad authority to deal with excavation damage prevention. [307] Griffin, J. Report Provides Insight into Utility Damage. Underground Construction, Feb. 2007, pp. 37–40. Utility damage hits in 2005 were reported to CGA through its damage information reporting tool (DIRT). CGA com- pleted a DIRT report. [308] Kannenwischer, J. Protecting Buried Utilities. Trench- less Technology, Vol. 14, No. 5, May 2005, pp. 55–57. Locating utilities with radars, potholes, and one-call sys- tems before excavation is briefly discussed. [309] Simmonds, C. The Case for the Use of Ground Prob- ing Radar Becoming Law. NoDig International, Vol. 14, No. 4, April 2003, pp. 13–14. The Construction, Health, and Safety Executive (CHSE) guidelines offer recommendations to prevent injury from damage to underground services while excavating. The arti- cle describes a draft of the Involuntary Homicide Bill by the Law Commissions in the United Kingdom that would cause many employers, operatives, and even service owners to reconsider how they break ground. [310] Williams, C. Georgetown: Down Under. Washington Post, March 24, 2002. The three-year project (2002–2004) in Washington, D.C., will rebuild the utility infrastructure beneath Georgetown’s historic M Street. At work were the D.C. Department of Transportation, Pepco, Verizon, Washington Gas, and the D.C. Water and Sewer Authority. No technical details were provided in this newspaper article. [311] Griffin, J. Modern Tools of Underground Damage Prevention. Underground Construction, Vol. 56, No. 4, April 2001, pp. 26–28. DrillSafe is a self-contained system that incorporates two closed-circuit cameras: a color positioning and inspection camera and a fixed-position black-and-white camera with a radio transmitter for locating functions. [312] Barron, J. Straight Talk on Damage Prevention. Utility Contractor, Vol. 23, No. 3, March 1999, pp. 22–25. Prior to water main installation in Washington, D.C., the utility marked red where electric lines ran parallel to the water main to be installed, and the contractor potholed up to the point where the lines veered.

112[313] Aucoin, M. P. Contract Locating Provides an Extra Layer of Safety. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Sept. 1998. The use of one-call centers is discussed, as well as improve- ments made in line-locating equipment and technological advancements (tracer wire, protective warning tapes, improved quality of prints for the GIS systems, and mag- netic locating balls). [314] Carver, C. Examine Hidden Costs of Utility Hits When Allocating Damage Prevention Dollars. Underground Focus, Jan./Feb. 1998, pp. 8–9. A study by North Carolina State University identified fac- tors to consider when planning prudent damage preven- tion. Two models have been developed. One model reviews the economic impact of utility damages, and the other shows how to optimize damage prevention dollars. [315] Krawiec, K. R., and R. J. Ross. Rerouting Boston’s Util- ities. Civil Engineering, Vol. 67, No. 12, Dec. 1997, ASCE, pp. 50–53. During tunnel construction in downtown Boston, engi- neers had to move utility lines over and under both new and existing infrastructure and maintain utility service to customers. Research and Planning References listed in this section cover topics such as research and development planning and intellectual prop- erty arrangements. Reports [316] Federal Laboratory Consortium for Technology Trans- fer. Federal Technology Transfer Legislation and Policy (Green Book). FLC, 2006, 25 pp. This document provides the principal statutory and presi- dential executive order policies that constitute the frame- work of the federal technology transfer program. [317] Air Force Research Laboratory. Technology Transfer/ Education Interaction Mechanisms: Q uick Reference Guide. ARFL, June 2003, 18 pp. A total of 22 technology transfer mechanisms and 10 edu- cation interaction mechanisms are listed and described. Features/characteristics of each are given. [318] Gould, J. P., and A. C. Lemer (eds.). Toward Infra- structure Improvement: An Agenda for Research. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1994, 129 pp. The report identifies infrastructure technologies that can be incorporated into or overlay current systems, allow for alternative future urban development, and are likely to be valuable in different modes of infrastructure.[319] Kim, M., and G. N. Rao. Barriers for Innovation and Technology Transfer in the Public Works Infrastruc- ture R&D. Infrastructure Planning and Management, ASCE, New York, N.Y., 1993, pp. 51–55. [320] Dibner, D. R., and A. C. Lemer. The Role of Public Agencies in Fostering New Technology and Innovation in Building. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1992, 131 pp. The book explores innovation in U.S. construction-related industries (e.g., facilities operation and maintenance) and recommends a strategy for fostering new technology. Papers (Conference Proceedings, Journals, and so forth) [321] Clambaneva, S. Technology Innovation in the Con- struction Industry. Structural Engineer, Vol. 82, No. 3, Feb. 2004, pp. 23–24. While other industries have applied computer technology to product design, the construction industry has merely used computer spreadsheets for estimating and bidding. Building complexity is expanding exponentially, but blueprints—the major tool of the building trade—have remained static, unable to match the rapid pace of modern change. [322] U.S. Congress. Technology Innovation. U.S. Code Anno- tated, Chapter 63, Title 15, 2000, Sections 3701–3715. This is a U.S. law to promote technology development through the establishment of cooperative research centers, stimulate improved utilization of federally funded technol- ogy developments, encourage development of technology through the recognition of outstanding individuals and companies, and encourage exchange of scientific and technical personnel among academia, industry, and federal laboratories. Standards [323] ASTM F2550-06. Standard Practice for Locating Leaks in Sewer Pipes Using Electro-Scan—The Variation of Electric Current Flow Through the Pipe Wall. American Society for Testing and Materials, 2006. Procedures for using the electroscan method to detect and locate defects that are potential sources of leaks in pipes fabricated from electrically nonconductive material such as plastic, clay, and concrete (reinforced and nonreinforced). [324] EN 50249:2002. Electromagnetic Locators for Buried Pipes and Cables—Performance and Safety. 2002. This European standard specifies the performance and safety requirements for outdoor portable electromagnetic locators for the location of buried conductive pipes, cables, and wires (including allied components) by means of detecting the electromagnetic field caused by a flow of AC current.

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