Significant Findings from Full-Scale Accelerated Pavement Testing (2004)

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197 INDEX AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) 11, 17 Absorption 8 AC (asphalt concrete) mixes 82 Accelerated loading tests (ALT) 87 Accelerated pavement testing 1, 2, 5, 25, 67, 80 Additives 12, 44 Aggregate 12, 13, 16, 17, 24, 25, 28, 35, 39, 40, 41, 43–45, 56, 57, 64–67, 75, 79 Aggregate base 12, 24, 25, 28, 44, 57 Aging 11, 27, 49, 57, 64, 71, 76, 87 Air temperature 9, 19, 27, 35, 57, 83 Air voids 56, 57 Airport pavements 71, 78 Alkaline aggregate reaction (AAR) 75 Analysis 2, 14, 16, 18, 21, 23–25, 27, 31, 35, 37–41, 44– 46, 49, 51, 55, 58, 59, 63, 65, 68, 71, 75, 77, 79, 83, 84, 91 Applications 2, 6, 9–13, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 33, 37, 41, 46, 47, 53–55, 59, 63, 65–67, 70, 71, 76, 78, 79, 81, 85, 89, 91 Asphalt Base 12, 51, 66, 86 Concrete 11–13, 16, 24, 28, 38–41, 43–45, 49, 57, 58, 63, 65, 67, 69, 82, 89 Content 57, 67, 83 Layer 17, 21, 24, 28, 33, 35, 47, 50, 52, 54, 55, 58–60, 62, 64, 67, 74, 79, 84, 86 Materials 37, 38, 64, 85 Mixes 56, 67, 85 Mixtures 16, 28, 31 Pavement 11, 13, 18, 21, 28, 45, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 58– 60, 66, 84, 87, 88 Rubber 12, 63 Stiffness 59 Asphalt over asphalt 70 Asphalt over concrete 70 Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) 1, 15, 64, 68, 72, 76, 77, 82, 83, 87 Austroads Pavement Design Guide 13, 64, 72, 82 Axle 8, 9, 14, 17, 19–21, 24, 26, 31, 50, 51, 53, 55, 57, 58, 67, 69, 72, 74, 78, 83, 85, 87, 89 Configuration 26, 89 Load 9, 13, 17, 20, 21, 25, 50, 53, 55, 58, 67, 72, 74 Back-calculation 47, 51 Base 8, 11–17, 20–25, 28–31, 33–35, 37, 41–47, 50–52, 54, 57–59, 64, 66–68, 70, 72, 74, 77, 79–83, 88, 89, 92 Course 11, 16, 21, 29, 31, 34, 37, 46, 66, 79, 82, 83, 88, 89 Material 12, 16, 43, 44, 46, 54, 67, 88 Behavior 5, 16, 18, 37, 40, 52, 56, 60, 73, 77, 79, 82, 83 Bending beam rheometer 37 Benefits 3, 18, 24, 40, 64, 67, 77, 80–87, 89, 91, 92 Bidirectional 9, 10, 22, 35, 79 Binder 12, 16, 18, 27–29, 37–45, 55–57, 59, 61, 64, 65, 69, 70, 73, 75, 84, 85, 88 Bitumen content 12, 13, 29, 56 Bitumen/cement 43, 68, 82 Bitumen–rubber asphalt 39 Bituminous 13, 18, 38, 42, 55, 56, 74, 82 Materials 13, 18, 42, 56 Blast furnace slag 16, 82 Bleeding 45, 79, 83 Block pavers 11, 37, 71, 78 Calibration 89 CAL/APT 1, 30, 38, 39, 42, 44, 63, 69, 84, 87 Carbonation 30 Carousel 12, 22, 26, 28, 71, 72 Canterbury Accelerated Pavement Testing Indoor Facility (CAPTIF) 21, 22, 25, 30, 39, 42, 43, 52, 82, 83 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) 12, 16, 17, 53, 79 Cement-treated crushed rock (CTCR) 13, 15, 43 Cement-treated subbase (CTSB) 15 Cement Modified 46 Stabilized 68 Treated 20, 25, 82 Cement base 16, 17, 44, 82 Cemented 15, 45, 51, 68, 69, 72, 82, 83 CEntro De Estudios De Carreteras test facility (CEDEX) 16, 33, 44 Chip seal 38, 42 Clay 15, 16, 35, 42, 45, 79, 82 Coarse aggregate 41 Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) 9, 29, 45 Compaction 9, 12, 15, 16, 33, 37, 43, 44, 54, 61, 63, 64, 67–70, 84, 86 Complex modulus 56 Composite 3, 11, 16, 18, 43, 63–65, 67, 74, 91 Composite structures 15–18 Compressive strength 38 Concrete 2, 9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 24, 28, 30, 35, 37–42, 44, 45, 47, 60, 65–67, 69, 70, 75, 78, 79, 82, 87, 89 Concrete pavement 9, 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 37–39, 41, 42, 47, 60, 65, 66, 69, 75, 87, 89 Configuration 8 Constructability 69 Construction 2, 3, 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 22, 26, 33, 40, 43, 53, 63, 67–70, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 82–85, 87, 89– 91 Construction specifications 63, 67, 70 Contact stress 19, 23–25, 55 Continuously graded 28, 37, 65

198 Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) 65, 75, 89 Conventional trafficking 20, 71, 74, 77 Cooperative Science and Technology (COST) 1, 46 COST 347 1, 3, 4, 6, 46, 87, 91, 92 Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) 31 Crack 16, 17, 20, 24, 30, 59–61, 65, 72–74, 76, 86, 89 Cracking 11–18, 24, 27, 29, 39–41, 43–45, 47, 49, 58– 61, 64–68, 71–73, 75, 76, 78, 83, 86–88 Propagation 73 Sealing 30 Crack Activity Meter (CAM) 65, 86 Crack movement (CM) 65 Creep 25, 38, 39, 44 Crumb-rubber modified (CRM) 39 Crushed stone/crusher run 11, 17, 25, 33, 43–46, 65, 67, 74–76, 79, 83, 88 Crushing 15, 17, 30 Curling 13, 14, 18, 28, 37, 60, 66 Curvature 47, 79 Damage 6, 11, 20, 21, 23, 24, 31–33, 35, 38, 40, 41, 44, 47–49, 60, 61, 67, 68, 72, 82, 85 Debonding 15, 18, 43, 66 Deflection 14, 25, 26, 31, 35, 38, 42, 43, 47, 50, 51, 57–59, 61, 65, 74, 78, 79, 86 Deflection bowl 51 Deflection measurements 38, 50 Deformation 13, 18, 21–25, 27–31, 33, 38, 39, 43–45, 47, 51–53, 55, 57, 60, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 79, 82 Degradation 12, 41, 68 Delamination 16 Dense bitumen macadam (DBM) 13 Density 37–39, 43, 52, 68–70, 74 Design 10–12, 14–17, 19, 25, 26, 29, 30, 33, 35, 37, 40– 42, 44, 45, 51, 53, 55, 57, 60, 63, 64, 67–70, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88–90, 92 Criteria 53, 69 Procedure 17, 35, 53, 67, 80, 82 Transfer functions 51, 76 Deterioration 17, 21, 22, 29, 30, 39, 41, 43, 48, 49, 54, 58, 68, 84, 85 Displacement gauges 47 Distress 2, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 21, 23, 27, 29, 30, 34, 37–40, 44, 45, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 74–79, 84, 91 DIVINE 21, 22, 68, 85 Dowels 13, 14, 18, 42, 65 Dual wheel 8, 13, 24, 29 Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) 38, 57, 86 Dynamic creep 38, 39, 44, 82 Dynamic loads 21, 22, 85 Economic gains 3, 85, 91 Economy 83, 84 Elastic layer analysis 47 Elastic modulus 50 Emulsion-treated 43, 44, 46, 67 Environment 2, 5, 9, 19, 27, 29, 33, 35, 71, 74, 75, 77, 80, 82, 83, 87, 92 Environmental damage exponent (EDE) 33 Environmental effects 3, 14, 17, 33, 35, 36, 53, 91 Environmental impact 3, 19, 26, 27, 35, 75, 92 Equipment 38, 78 Equivalent single-axle load (ESAL) 57, 72 Erosion 13–15, 17, 33, 43–45, 74 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 28, 39, 46 European APT Synthesis Study 6 Evaluation 15, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43–46, 50, 63, 69, 79, 80, 82, 87–89 Experimental pavement 72 Failure criteria 47, 49, 88 Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) 9, 16, 31, 38, 45, 50, 53, 57, 58, 63, 64, 72 Fatigue 11–13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 24, 38–45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 58–60, 62–64, 67–69, 71, 72, 74, 76, 82, 84, 86, 88 Analysis 84 Behavior 39, 59 Cracking 12, 13, 17, 24, 38, 40, 41, 43, 45, 58, 59, 64, 69, 76, 88 Life 12, 13, 24, 39–41, 58–60, 64, 67, 72, 82 Performance 12, 13, 15, 18, 38–42, 44–46, 58–60, 64 Resistance 18, 44, 60 Federal Aviation Administration, New Jersey 8 Fiber-reinforced concrete 66 Fibers 17, 44, 66, 82 Field Density 67 Performance 13, 39, 40, 82, 89 Filler 13, 39 Film thickness 57 Finite-element (FE) analysis 14, 23, 25, 47 Finite-element method 24, 62 Finnish National Road Administration 10 Fixed site 1, 7, 18, 70, 89 Flexible 11, 16–18, 23, 25, 35, 41, 42, 53, 58, 65, 67, 69, 78, 79, 82, 84, 88 Flexible pavement 8, 11, 16, 17, 23, 25, 35, 53, 58, 67, 69, 78, 79, 84 Flexural fatigue 17, 38–41 Flexural strength 13, 38, 60 Florida Department of Transportation, Florida 8 Freeze/thaw 29, 34, 46 Freezing 27, 29, 30, 35 Frost 16, 29, 35 Functional performance 11, 62, 83 Gap graded 65 Geofabrics 18, 66 Geogrid 82

199 Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory (GSL) 9, 46, 82, 87 Geotextile 12, 15, 42, 44, 82 Geotextile reinforced 15, 42, 82 Gradation 37, 40, 41, 43, 56, 67 Granular base 12, 15, 23, 30, 53, 88 Granular emulsion mixes (GEMs) 44, 69 Granular materials 11, 16, 33, 37, 42–45, 60, 85, 86 Gravel base 17, 20, 21, 31, 33, 67 Ground penetrating radar (GPR) 38 Healing 59, 73 Heating 27, 64, 72 Heavy-duty macadam (HDM) 13, 64 Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) 11, 18, 23, 27, 28, 33, 35, 37, 53, 64–69, 74, 79, 84 Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) 1, 8–10, 12, 15, 21–26, 29–31, 33–35, 39, 41, 43–45, 50–53, 60, 63–69, 73–76, 78, 79, 82, 83, 86–89 HVS-A (Bigfoot) 88 HVS–Nordic 10, 16, 34, 35, 41, 44, 45, 88 Hydraulic cement concrete (HCC) 87 Impact of water 30, 31, 33 Implementation 2, 12, 41, 46, 73, 84, 88, 89, 91 Indirect tensile fatigue 31, 38, 41, 45 Indirect tensile strength 38–40, 45 Indirect tensile test 37, 38, 42 Inflation pressure 23–25 Ingress of water 15, 30, 33, 34, 65, 74, 75, 78, 86 In-service pavements 3, 16, 20, 27, 29, 41, 43, 49, 53, 62, 71, 75, 77, 92 In situ strength 74 Interaction 1–3, 5, 8, 11, 13, 19–36, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 84, 85, 91, 92 Interlayers 39, 65, 75 International roughness index (IRI) 29, 84 Inverted pavements 82 Issues 18, 19, 63, 69–72, 74, 80, 87, 89, 92 Joint failure 11, 14 Jointed unreinforced concrete (JCP) 65 Joints 9, 13, 14, 60, 65, 66 Kansas State University Facility, Kansas 8 Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses (LCPC) 1, 5, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20–22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 39, 59, 68, 71, 72, 85, 87 Laboratory compaction 54 Large Aggregate Mixes for Bases (LAMBS) 44, 69, 70 Large stone mixes 70 Lateritic gravel 15, 43, 82 Lessons 46, 63, 70, 75 Life cycle 75 Lightweight aggregate asphalt concrete (LWAC) 41, 64 Lime 12, 15, 16, 42–44, 64, 68, 69, 82 LINear TRACKing Apparatus (LINTRACK) 13, 25, 45, 53, 55, 59, 73 Load and environment 19, 37, 46, 91 Load, configuration 47, 49 Load, equivalency 20, 31, 47 Long-term pavement performance (LTPP) 3, 6, 71, 72, 76, 77, 88, 92 Longitudinal joint 13 Longitudinal profile 22, 38 Low temperature cracking 29 Maintenance 2, 3, 7, 12, 15, 22, 37, 44, 49, 53, 62–64, 68, 70, 72–75, 77, 80–82, 84–86, 91 Marginal materials 18, 43, 82 Material Characterization 35, 37, 38, 46, 53, 56, 62 Design 81, 82 Properties 22, 35, 45, 46, 50, 53, 54, 56 Testing 53 Materials and tests 2, 7, 20, 37, 38, 46 Mathematical model 25, 48, 49, 52, 62, 63 Maximum density line 82 Mechanistic models 67, 74 Milling 64, 79, 89 Minnesota Road Research Project (Mn/ROAD) 6, 26, 29, 35, 45, 52, 58, 61, 66, 67 Mix design 39–41, 54, 82 Model Mobile Load Simulator (MMLS3) 27, 31, 42, 76 Modeling 7, 12, 23, 25, 37, 38, 47–62, 71–73, 81–83 Modulus 12, 17, 18, 21, 27, 31, 32, 39, 42–44, 50, 56, 59, 72, 75 Modulus of Elasticity 31 Moisture content 16, 31, 33, 45, 54, 68, 70, 74, 86, 88 Moisture damage 11, 31, 40, 41, 44, 68 Multi-Depth Deflectometer (MDDs) 47, 51, 79, 86 National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) 8, 14, 79, 82, 83, 87, 88 National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) 1, 8, 9, 45, 82–84, 89 Noise 12, 34 Ohio Research Institute for Transportation and the Environment 8 Open graded 75 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 3, 20–22, 25, 46, 85, 91, 92 Overlay design 63, 89 Overloading 24 Particle shape 69 Pavement, behavior 73 Construction 15, 22, 68 Design 8, 11–14, 16, 17, 34, 45, 46, 50, 52, 53, 62, 68, 73, 79, 82, 83, 85, 87, 88

200 Deterioration 21, 33, 86 Distress 21, 22 Economics 81 Evaluation 3, 91, 92 Management 3, 47, 77, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87 Performance 2, 3, 6, 14, 17, 20–22, 26, 27, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38, 41, 46, 47, 49, 53, 61, 62, 68, 73–77, 80, 86, 91, 92 Response 3, 6, 21, 29, 38, 41, 49, 57, 62, 73 Rutting 17, 64 Temperature 8, 9, 27, 28, 57, 61, 83 Pavement management systems (PMS) 3, 47, 85, 86, 91, 92 Pavement Test Facility (PTF) 14, 64, 66, 83, 88 Pavers 78 Paving 55 Pay factors 63, 67, 70, 84, 90 Performance 2, 3 Prediction 3, 42, 74, 77, 78, 80, 83, 90, 92 Prediction model 77 Permanent deformation 11, 12, 24, 28, 29, 38–41, 43–45, 47, 49–57, 62, 67, 74, 76, 79, 83, 86 Permeability 12, 38, 44 Plastic 17, 25, 28, 29, 44, 50, 52, 54, 55, 60, 64, 85, 87 Plastic deformation 28, 29, 64, 87 Polymer 39, 40, 88 Modifiers 88 Portland cement concrete 11, 13, 30, 37, 42, 60, 87 Prediction models 72 Present serviceability index (PSI) 61 Pressure cells 35, 47, 50, 62 Pumping 14, 15, 33, 45, 74, 83 Rain 30, 33, 75 Rainfall 32, 33, 54, 83 Rational pavement design 71 Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) 45, 46, 88, 89 Reconstruction 69, 85, 89 Recycled 3, 37, 44, 45, 64, 66, 91 Recycling 41–43, 64, 70, 72 Regression 23, 32, 48–51, 54–58 Regression model 56 Rehabilitation 2, 3, 7, 18, 30, 37–39, 41, 43, 45, 63–65, 67, 69, 70, 74, 75, 78–80, 82–84, 86, 91 Reinforcement 17, 18, 42, 45, 65, 67, 88 Resilient modulus 38, 39, 43, 54, 57, 69 Rest periods 40, 58, 59, 61, 73 Rich bottom 12, 18, 38, 84 Rigid pavement 16, 20, 66, 69, 79, 82 Road construction 67 Road structure 17, 88 Road-building materials 82 Rotational viscometer 37 Roughness 11, 22, 25, 29, 84 Rut depth 9, 22, 23, 29, 33–35, 50–53, 55–58, 72, 76, 79 Rutting 9, 11–13, 16–18, 20–30, 34, 35, 38–41, 44, 45, 49– 58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 71, 73–76, 79, 83–85, 88, 89 Rutting performance 23, 24, 38–41, 45, 54, 57, 58, 61, 64, 67, 69, 76, 84 Safety 11, 84 Sand 13, 16, 28, 29, 35, 41, 45, 53, 78, 82 Savings 3, 15, 42, 44, 68, 78, 81, 83–86, 91 Seal 15, 43, 45, 65, 75, 83 Seasonal variation 61 Semi-circular bending test 38 Semi-gap graded 64, 65, 79 Sensors 47, 67 Serviceability 61, 69 Service life 22, 55, 68, 74, 88, 90 Shear strength 15, 24, 30, 74 Shoving 66, 76 Shrinkage 13, 15, 17, 44, 60, 65 Significant findings 2, 7, 26, 37, 46, 77, 83, 86, 87, 91, 92 Simple shear test at constant height 39 Simulation 35, 67 Single wheel 17, 23, 24, 79 Skid resistance 11, 38 Slag 15, 28, 41–44, 64, 68, 82 Softening point 28 South African Method for Pavements (SMDM) 12, 51, 73, 74 Specially constructed 7, 76 Specification 40, 43, 56, 67, 88 Spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) 31, 38, 46, 58 Speed 9, 19, 22, 25, 26, 28, 29, 36, 55, 58, 79 Spring load restrictions 35 Stability 82, 85 Stabilizer 43 Static creep 55 Stiffness 11, 12, 15, 16, 31, 34, 37–39, 41–43, 45, 46, 48, 55–59, 63, 65, 67, 69, 73, 76, 86 Stiffness loss 73, 76 Stiffness modulus 12 Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) 38, 41, 45, 82 Strain 21, 24, 25, 29, 33–35, 41, 45, 47, 49–55, 57–60, 62, 64, 67, 72, 74, 82, 88 Strain gauges 35, 47, 62, 67, 82 Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) 6, 38–40, 58, 77 Stress 12, 23–26, 40, 47, 49–55, 58–60, 62, 65, 72, 75, 76, 78, 82, 88 Stress dependent 54, 76 Stress-in-Motion (SIM) 23, 25, 86 Stress range to number curves (S–N curves) 60 Stress ratio 60, 82 Stripping 11, 12, 44, 64 Structural Composition 2, 91 Configuration 4, 19, 46, 92

201 Design 2, 11–18, 37, 47, 58, 69, 70, 72, 81, 82, 91 Performance 11, 62, 78, 88 Structure 9, 11–18, 22, 25, 26, 28–30, 33–35, 38–41, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 57–60, 63–65, 68, 70–72, 74–76, 78, 79, 85, 86, 89 Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) 39, 46, 88 Subbase 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 25, 28, 29, 42–45, 53, 57, 64, 65, 68, 69, 74, 79 Subgrade 8, 11–16, 18, 19, 21, 24, 28, 29, 31, 33–35, 43– 47, 49–54, 58–62, 64, 65, 69, 72, 79, 82, 87, 88 Moisture 19 Strain criterion 13, 45, 52 Subsurface drainage 69 Super single 9 Superpave 82 Surface 8, 9, 13–15, 17, 20, 22–25, 27–31, 33, 34, 36, 38– 45, 50–55, 57–60, 64, 65, 68, 69, 72, 74, 75, 79, 84, 85, 87, 88 Course 87 Cracking 13, 22, 23, 27, 72 Seal 11, 33, 43, 72, 74 Texture 9, 25, 39 Suspension system, surface 8, 19, 21 Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) 10 Tack coat 84 Technical Research Center of Finland (VTT) 10 Temperature 27–30 Temperature susceptibility 39 Tensile strength 27, 69 Test facilities 18, 22 Test method 38, 43 Test road 84 Texas Mobile Load Simulator (TxMLS) 13, 21–23, 31, 42, 50, 51, 57, 63, 68, 83, 85, 89 Thaw weakening 17, 50 Thermal 13, 28, 38, 40 Thermal cracking 38, 40 Time Domain Reflectomentry (TDR) 1, 68 Tire pressure 17, 19, 20, 23–25, 58, 59, 61, 89 Tire type 19, 24, 89 Tracking tests 6 Traffic loading 12, 15, 19, 21, 23, 55 Trafficking 1, 6, 8, 9, 13, 16, 19, 20, 22–26, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 39, 41, 45, 46, 50, 53, 58–61, 65, 66, 71, 72, 74–80, 82–88 Transfer functions 12, 13, 35, 49, 51, 60 Transport Research Laboratory Ltd. (TRL) 5, 64 Triaxial testing 38, 44, 82 Trucks 9, 13, 16, 20, 45 Ultra-thin fiber-reinforced concrete (UTFRC) 66 Ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW) 66, 67 Unconfined compressive strength 42, 43 Unconventional materials 63 Unidirectional 58 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 5, 9, 15, 35 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center (ERDC ) 15, 46, 79, 82, 87 University of Illinois/Advanced Transportation Research & Engineering Laboratory 9 User costs 84 VAG–OCH Transportforskningsinstitut (VTI) 10 Validation 3, 15, 34, 37, 46, 66, 80, 83, 86, 89, 91 Vehicle–pavement–interaction 23 Vehicle–Road Surface Pressure Transducer Array (VRSPTA) 23–25, 86 VESYS 49, 55 Viscosity 55–57 Voids 12, 13, 57, 65 Voids-in-mineral aggregate (VMA) 57 Volumetric properties 56 Wander 8, 9, 19, 22, 23, 28, 35, 73, 76 Warping 18, 37, 65, 66 Warranty contracts 4, 70, 83, 92 Water 30–35 Water infiltration 43 Water table 8, 9, 19, 35, 87 Weather databases 83 Websites 8, 10, 87 Wet trafficking 31, 34, 36, 41, 46, 64, 75, 78 Wheel, tracking 6, 25, 39, 76 Wheel load 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 17, 19–22, 25, 26, 29, 31, 50, 54, 55, 58, 60, 61, 71, 78, 79 Whitetopping 37, 66, 70 Wide-based single tires 24