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Page 38
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Guidelines for Nighttime Visibility of Overhead Signs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23512.
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Page 38
Page 39
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Guidelines for Nighttime Visibility of Overhead Signs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23512.
×
Page 39
Page 40
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2016. Guidelines for Nighttime Visibility of Overhead Signs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/23512.
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Page 40

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

38 1. Carlson, P. J., and H. G. Hawkins. Minimum Retroreflectivity Levels for Overhead Guide Signs and Street-Name Signs. FHWA- RD-03-082, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 2003. 2. IESNA Recommended Practice for Roadway Sign Lighting. IESNA RP-19-01, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 2001. 3. AASHTO Roadway Lighting Design Guide. American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2005. 4. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 2009. 5. Richards, O. W. “Effects of Luminance and Contrast on Visual Acuity, Ages 16 to 90 Years.” American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics, Vol. 54, No. 3, 1977, pp. 178–84. 6. Schnell, T., F. Aktan, and C. Li. “Traffic Sign Luminance Require- ments of Nighttime Drivers for Symbolic Signs.” In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1862, Transportation Research Board of the National Acad- emies, Washington, DC, 2004, pp. 24–35. 7. Forbes, T. W. “Luminance and Contrast for Sign Legibility and Color Recognition.” In Transportation Research Record 611, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1976, pp. 17–24. 8. Padmos, P. Minimum Required Night-Time Luminance of Retro- reflective Traffic Signs. TM-00-C029, TNO Human Factors, Nether- lands Organization for Applied Scientific Research, 2002. 9. Holick, A. J., and P. J. Carlson. Minimum Retroreflectivity Levels for Blue and Brown Traffic Signs. FHWA-HRT-08-029, Federal High- way Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washing- ton, DC, 2008. 10. Jackson, N. M., G. R. Jackson, P. J. Carlson, and F. Ye. Use of High Intensity Reflective Sheeting in Lieu of External Lighting of Overhead Roadway Signs. BDK82 977-07, Florida Department of Transporta- tion, Tallahassee, 2013. 11. Survey of Lighting Practices. Wisconsin DOT conducted the survey using the AASHTO Subcommittee on Traffic Engineering’s ListServ tool. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2008. 12. Survey Results and Analysis for Joint Technical Committee on Roadway Lighting. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2010. 13. Gund, A. A Review of KDOT Overhead Guide Sign Lighting Policy. MS thesis, Kansas State University, Manhattan, 2011. 14. Carlson, P. J., and A. Holick. “Maximizing Legibility of Unlit Free- way Guide Signs with Clearview Font and Combinations of Retro- reflective Sheeting Materials.” In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1918, Transporta- tion Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC, 2005, pp. 26–34. 15. Cleveland, D. E. Intersection and Sign Illumination for Highway Safety and Efficiency. Research Report 5-8, Texas A&M Transporta- tion Institute, College Station, 1966. 16. Roberston, R. N. “Evaluation of High-Intensity Sheeting for Over- head Highway Signs.” In Transportation Research Record 611, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1976, pp. 28–34. 17. Roberston, R. N., and J. D. Shelor. “Using Encapsulated Lens Reflec- tive Sheeting for Overhead Highway Signs.” In Transportation Research Record 628, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1977, pp. 49–52. 18. Gordon, D. A. Night Visibility of Overhead Guide Signs: A Review of the Literature. FHWA-RD-84-087, Federal Highway Administra- tion, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1984. 19. Zwahlen, H. T., A. Russ, and S. Vatan. Unlighted Guide Sign Feasibil- ity Study. Draft Project Report, Ohio Research Institute for Trans- portation and the Environment Human Factors Laboratory, Ohio University, Athens, 2002. 20. Zwahlen, H. T., A. Russ, and S. Vatan. Field Evaluation of Unlighted Overhead Guide Signs Using Older Drivers. FHWA/OH-2003/015, Ohio University, Athens, 2003. 21. Carlson, P. J., and H. G. Hawkins. “Legibility of Overhead Guide Signs with Encapsulated Versus Microprismatic Retroreflective Sheeting.” In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Trans- portation Research Board, No. 1844, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC, 2003, pp. 59–66. 22. Carlson, P. J., and A. Holick. “Maximizing Legibility of Unlit Free- way Guide Signs with Clearview Font and Combinations of Retro- reflective Sheeting Materials.” In Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board, No. 1918, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC, 2005, pp. 26–34. 23. Bullough, J. D., N. P. Nicholas, and C. P. O’Rourke. “Legibility of Urban Highway Traffic Signs Using New Retroreflective Materials.” Transport, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2010, pp. 229–36. 24. Field Evaluation of Unlighted Overhead Guide Signs. Indiana DOT Report, Indianapolis, 2009. 25. Brimley, B. K., H. G. Hawkins, and P. J. Carlson. “Analysis of Retro- reflectivity and Color Degradation in Sign Sheeting.” Presented References

39 at the 90th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 2011. 26. Carlson, P. J., and H. G. Hawkins. “Minimum Retroreflectivity for Overhead Guide Signs and Street Name Signs.” In Transporta- tion Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1794, Transportation Research Board of the National Acad- emies, 2002, pp. 38–48. 27. “Lamps, Reflective Devices, and Associated Equipment.” Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, Standard 108, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 49CFR, Fifth Volume, 1997. 28. Chrysler, S. T., P. J. Carlson, and H. G. Hawkins. Headlamp Illu- mination Provided to Sign Positions by Passenger Vehicle. FHWA/ TX-03/0-1796-3, Texas A&M Transportation Institute, College Station, 2003. 29. Sivak, M., B. Schoettle, and M. J. Flannagan. Recent Changes in Head- lamp Illumination Directed toward Traffic Signs. UMTRI-2006-31, University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, Ann Arbor, 2006. 30. Gogula, M. The Impact of Modern Headlamps on the Design of Sag Vertical Curves. MS thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, 2006. 31. Cornwell, P. R. “Highway Capacity, Vehicle Speeds and Public Lighting.” Traffic Engineering and Control, Vol. 13, 1972, pp. 297–98. 32. Assum, T., T. Bjørnskau, S. Fosser, and F. Sagberg. “Risk Compensation—The Case of Road Lighting.” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 31, 1999, pp. 545–53. 33. Goeverden, C. D., V. H. Botma, and P. H. L. Bovy. “Determining Impact of Road Lighting on Motorway Capacity.” In Transporta- tion Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1646, Transportation Research Board of the National Acad- emies, Washington, DC, 1998, pp. 1–8. 34. Box, P. C. “Freeway Accidents and Illumination.” In Highway Research Record No. 416, Highway Research Board, Washington, DC, 1972, pp. 10–20. 35. Box, P. C. “Effect of Lighting Reduction on an Urban Major Route.” Traffic Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 10, 1976, pp. 26–27. 36. Hilton, M. H. Continuous Freeway Illumination and Accidents on a Section of Rte. I-95. VHTRC 79-R4, Virginia Highway and Trans- portation Research Council, Charlottesville, 1978. 37. Road Safety at Night. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France, 1979. 38. Richards, S. “Effects of Turning Off Selected Roadway Lighting as an Energy Conservation Measure.” In Transportation Research Record 811, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1981, pp. 23–25. 39. Gramza, K., J. A. Hall, and W. Sampson. Effectiveness of Freeway Lighting. FHWA-RD-79-77, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1980. 40. Janoff, M. S. “The Potential for Reduced Lighting on Roadways.” Public Roads, Vol. 50, No. 2, 1986, pp. 33–42. 41. Fridstrøm, L., J. Ifver, S. Ingebrigtsen, and T. L. Krogsgård. Explain- ing the Variation in Road Accident Counts—A Four-Country Gen- eralized Poisson Regression Analysis. NORD series, Vol. 35, Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1993. 42. Griffith, M. S. “Comparison of the Safety of Lighting Options on Urban Freeways.” Public Roads, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1994, pp. 8–15. 43. Elvik, R. “A Meta-Analysis of Evaluations of Public Lighting as an Accident Countermeasure.” In Transportation Research Record 1485, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1995, pp. 112–13. 44. Elvik, R., A. B. Mysen, and T. Vaa. Traffic Safety Handbook. Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway, 1997. 45. Bruneau, J. F., and D. Morin. “Safety of Motorway Lighting.” In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1758, TRB, National Research Council, Wash- ington, DC, 2001, pp. 1–5. 46. Elvik, R., and T. Vaa. Handbook of Road Safety Measures. Elsevier, Oxford, U.K., 2004. 47. Monsere, C. M., and E. L. 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Bhanji. “Fundamentals of Disability Glare: A Formula to Describe Straylight in the Eye as a Function of Glare Angle and Age.” In Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Glare, New York Lighting Research Institute, 1991, pp. 185–93. 53. Van Bommel, W. J. M., and J. B. deBoer. Road Lighting. Kluwer Technische Boeken, B. V. Philips Technical Library, Antwerp, Belgium, 1980. 54. Lerner, N. D., R. E. Llaneras, H. W. McGee, and G. Alexander. NCHRP Report 488: Additional Investigations on Driver Informa- tion Overload. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC, 2003. 55. Andreassen, D. C. Traffic Accidents and Advertising Signs. Australian Road Research Board, Internal Report AIR-000-213, Vol. 15, 1985, pp. 103–5. 56. Holahan, C. J. Relationship between Roadside Signs and Traffic Acci- dents: A Field Investigation. Research Report 54, Office of Traffic Safety, Texas State Department of Highways and Public Transpor- tation, Austin, 1977. 57. Smith, W. 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40 64. Bildstein, A. F. Jr. The Effect of Environmental Illumination on Traf- fic Sign Conspicuity and Retroreflectivity. MS thesis, West Virginia University, Morgantown, 2001. 65. Stein, A. C., Z. Parseghian, R. W. Allen, and C. E. Wolf. Overhead Guide Sign Visibility Factors, Volume I. Report FHWA-RD-88-196, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transporta- tion, Washington, DC, 1989. 66. Stein, A. C., Z. Parseghian, R. W. Allen, and C. E. Wolf. Overhead Guide Sign Visibility Factors, Volume II. Report FHWA-RD-88-197, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transporta- tion, Washington, DC, 1989. 67. Schieber, F., and C. H. Goodspeed. “Nighttime Conspicuity of Highway Signs as a Function of Sign Brightness, Background Complexity, and Age of Observer.” In Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Albuquerque, NM, 1997, pp. 1362–66. 68. Performance Evaluation of Retroreflective Traffic Signs. CIE TC 4-40, International Commission on Illumination, Draft Report No. 16, Vienna, Austria, 2009. 69. Mace, D. J., R. S. Hostetter, L. E. Pollack, and W. D. Sweig. Minimal Luminance Requirements for Official Highway Signs. Report FHWA- RD-86-151, Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1986. 70. Okawa, Y. “A Complexity Measure for Colored Pictures in Com- mercial Design.” Computer Graphics and Image Processing, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1981, pp. 345–61. 71. Mario, I., M. Chacon, D. Alma, and S. Corral. “Image Complexity Measure: A Human Criterion Free Approach.” In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the North American Fuzzy Information Processing Society, 2005, pp. 241–46. 72. Cardaci, M., V. Di Gesù, M. Petrou, and M. Tabacchi. “On the Eval- uation of Images Complexity: A Fuzzy Approach.” Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 3849, 2006, pp. 305–11. 73. Rigau, J., M. Feixas, and M. Sbert. “An Information-Theoretic Framework for Image Complexity.” In Computational Aesthetics Proceedings, 2005, pp. 177–84. 74. Garvey, P. M., M. T. Pietrucha, and D. T. Meeker. “Effects of Font and Capitalization on Legibility of Guide Signs.” In Transportation Research Record 1605, TRB, National Research Council, Washing- ton, DC, 1997, pp. 73–79. 75. Hawkins, H. G., M. D. Wooldridge, A. B. Kelly, D. L. Picha, and F. K. Greene. Legibility Comparison of Three Freeway Guide Sign Alphabets. Report FHWA/TX-99/1276-1F, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, 1999. 76. Carlson, P. J. Evaluation of Clearview Alphabet with Microprismatic Retroreflective Sheetings. Report FHWA/TX-02/4049-1, Texas Depart- ment of Transportation, Austin, 2001. 77. Chrysler, S. T., P. J. Carlson, and H. G. Hawkins. Nighttime Legibil- ity of Ground-Mounted Traffic Signs as a Function of Font, Color, and Retroreflective Sheeting Type. Report FHWA/TX-03/1796-2, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, 2002. 78. Carlson, P. J., J. Miles, E. S. Park, S. Young, S. Chrysler, and J. Clark. Development of a Model Performance-Based Sign Sheeting Speci- fication Based on the Evaluation of Nighttime Traffic Signs Using Legibility and Eye-Tracker Data. Report FHWA/TX-10/0-5235-1- Vol. 1, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, 2010. 79. Miles, J. D., B. Kotwal, S. Hammond, and F. Ye. Evaluation of Guide Sign Fonts. Report 99007, Minnesota Department of Transporta- tion, St. Paul, 2014. 80. Chrysler, S., S. Stackhouse, D. Tranchida, and E. Arthur. “Improv- ing Street Name Sign Legibility for Older Drivers.” In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting, 2001, pp. 1597–601. 81. Funkhouser, D., S. Chrysler, A. Nelson, and E. S. Park. “Traffic Sign Legibility for Different Sign Background Colors: Results of an Open Road Study at Freeway Speeds.” In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 52nd Annual Meeting, 2008, pp. 1855–59. 82. Carlson, P. J., and A. Holick. “Maximizing Legibility of Unlit Free- way Guide Signs with Clearview Font and Combinations of Retro- reflective Sheeting Materials.” In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1918, Transporta- tion Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC, 2005, pp. 26–34.

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 Guidelines for Nighttime Visibility of Overhead Signs
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TRB's National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 828: Guidelines for Nighttime Visibility of Overhead Signs explores legibility distances for drivers in controlled conditions and the effects of sign luminance and visual complexity on the distance at which a driver can read overhead signs and street signs. While the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) provides minimum retroreflectivity standards for overhead signs, there are few guidelines that agencies can reference to decide how to provide sufficient nighttime performance of overhead signs in site-specific situations. The report presents proposed guidelines for nighttime overhead sign visibility, formatted as a potential replacement for the current Chapter 10, Roadway Sign Lighting, in the 2005 AASHTO Roadway Lighting Design Guide.

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