Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide (2018)

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Countermeasures Catalog 109 The configuration lets passengers see what security cameras record. It is believed that potential law breakers, viewing themselves on video monitors, are less likely to commit crimes. Installation began in November 2014 and on lines where CCTV monitors were utilized, the number of crimes, particularly assaults against bus operators, dropped dramatically. Metro has also automated the fare announcement that passengers hear when they board the bus. Studies show that one-third of assaults against bus operators occurred as a result of fare disputes. Education is another part of the effort. Metro launched a pilot program to educate bus operators on ways to defuse potentially dangerous situations. The program, called Transit Ambassador, is a transit- specific customer service curriculum used by 50 transit agencies in the U.S. and has been proven successful in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the Caribbean. Metro is launching an outreach called “Meet Metro’s Best” on buses and trains to humanize front-line employees by highlighting operators and mechanics with a personal story. In addition, bus operators will soon be wearing lapel pins with the message “Mutual Respect.” Tougher enforcement is another key element. Current penalties for assaulting operators call for up to one year in prison and/or a fine up to $10,000. To help better protect them, Metro is working with State Senator Bob Huff (R-Diamond Bar) to sponsor SB 391, which would triple penalties for assaults against operators and require those convicted to spend more time in prison. The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department’s (LASD) Transit Policing Division (TPD), which patrols the Metro system, conducted a pilot study in November and December, 2014 during which uniformed and plain clothes deputies saturated specific bus lines in East Los Angeles Division 10 to concentrate on fare enforcement and other offenses. LASD uses intelligence-led policing to target potential trouble spots and partners with municipal police agencies in all L.A. County communities. However, LASD advises that with the size of Metro’s system, deputies can’t be everywhere and empowering riders to be the eyes and ears of law enforcement keeps the system safe. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

110 Goal: To establish a company policy for dealing with driver assaults and threatening and/or disruptive passengers that is robust and fully endorsed by senior management. A comprehensive policy addresses prevention, training and periodic re-training, handling problem passengers, categorizing of incidents, reporting of incidents, the supervisor/manager’s responsibility, prosecutions, communication, and procedures to be followed. Step 1. Planning The first step is to establish priorities and structure to address operator assaults in the transit organization. Planning allows the organization to clearly define roles and responsibilities, and identify approaches to respond to threats and assaults to drivers and other employees. A company Policy and Standard Operating Procedures should document the results of planning. A risk manage- ment program that identifies, analyzes and measures specific risks the organization may face supports the planning process. Standard Operating Procedures, which may address various types of accidents and other incidents in addition to just operator assaults, should include: • Driver, Supervisor and Management duties • Procedures for unruly passenger prevention • Procedures for unruly passenger management • Communication and coordination • Prevention strategies • Post-incident actions The Company Policy should include: • “Zero Tolerance” Driver Assault and Unruly Passenger policies • Conditions of carriage • Alcohol policy/No-smoking policy/Fare Payment policy • Definition of driver assault (in line with State laws and regulations) • Definition of unruly passenger • Standardized definition of threat levels 1.1 Identify problem situations and circumstances that may heighten the risk of violence. Threatening situations may include: – Verbal confrontation with driver or other passengers, – Physical confrontation with driver or other passengers, – Refusal to comply with driver instructions (e.g., instructions to take a seat, not to smoke, turn off a portable electronic device, etc.), – Making threats (includes all types of threats, whether directed against a person, e.g., threat to injure someone, or intended to cause confusion and chaos, such as statements A P P E N D I X E “Incident-Based” Threat Assessment Response Protocol and Evaluation Methodology Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

“Incident-Based” Threat Assessment Response Protocol and Evaluation Methodology 111 referring to a bomb threat, or simply any threatening behavior that could affect the safety of the driver or passengers), – Illegal consumption of alcohol or narcotics, and – Other type of riotous behavior (e.g., screaming, annoying behavior, kicking and/or fighting). 1.2 Recognize the risk factors associated with transit operator assaults. Potential risk factors include: – Changes in the transit agency fare system, schedule, or other issues that have the potential to trigger violence; – Routes in areas known to be unsafe (e.g., gunfire, gangs, vandalism, robberies, or assaults); – Previous history of operator violence, assault, or harassment; and – Drivers untrained in de-escalation skills. 1.3 Develop a standard response action plan for violent situations, including when/who to call for help, availability of assistance, response to alarm systems, and communication procedures. 1.3.1 Establish emergency procedures process for all parties concerned: driver, field supervisor, dispatch/radio operator, security, police. – Formalize rapid response procedure when a driver is assaulted—procedures for calling for help, types of response (supervisor, manager, police, assessment team). � Who to call: options include dispatch, 911, transit police (if available), local police � Role of supervisor and/or manager in response and follow-up  Establish process to provide feedback to driver and/or supervisor  Establish process to provide feedback to union � Procedures to address injured driver: transportation to medical facility; type of injury that requires taking operator off run, e.g., injury or blow to the neck or head; transporting operator to their home garage for reporting purposes. � Provision of post-incident support to driver – Establish appropriate levels and response procedures for different types of threats, e.g., threat to operator, interference with operator, minor incident with no injury, incidents with guns and other weapons involved, and serious incident with operator injury. � Establish policies to give operators better guidance on conflict aversion, such as insisting an operator does not leave the driver’s seat and requiring only minimal compliance of transit agency fare policies and rules with confrontational patrons. � Establish procedures to guide operators if a weapon is involved, e.g., not making any sudden movements or attempts to grab the weapon � Develop a customer service policy governing on-board passenger activities including inappropriate passenger behavior that define situations for the driver/ operator to refuse passenger service based on safety and security concerns � Document all operational safety and security activities and protocols in driver/ operator handbook 1.3.2 Establish emergency communication protocol that covers the use of radios, phones, overt communication tactics, alarm buttons, etc. – Identify when normal channels should be used, e.g., if the operator believes it is safe to do so. Identify when to use and who will listen to emergency channel, e.g., dispatch, police, or both. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

112 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: User Guide – Establish an emergency verbal code for drivers/operators to use in notifying dis- patch that emergency law enforcement response is needed based on a dangerous or potentially dangerous passenger on the vehicle. – Identify available methods for reporting an incident in progress such as Emergency Call Button, Silent Alarms, Radio “Priority Button,” Emergency Indicators— Destination Signs, Whistles. – Identify additional procedures and improvements that can be instituted between Operations Control Center staff, operators, and police, such as monitoring system by police dispatchers for immediate assistance as needed and clarifying information to be relayed in emergencies. 1.3.3 Establish procedures for calling for medical assistance – Identify role of driver, supervisor and/or manager and crisis response team (if available) in incident with injuries to driver/operation – Develop procedures to address responding to injuries to driver/operator includ- ing transportation to medical facility 1.3.4 Establish procedures for notifying the proper authorities (security personnel and the police). – Identify available Security resources. E.g., Is a supervisor or police available to accompany the driver on the route? – Establish procedures for contacting security or police (e.g., through dispatch, direct call by driver/operator). – Clarify communication requirements of security and police (e.g., what type of information to provide during call). 1.4 Put in place policies and procedures for reporting and record-keeping 1.4.1 Establish processes to document all assault incidents, close calls, suspicious persons and abusive behavior in a timely manner. Capture assault characteristics, such as frequently occurring assault types, time period of occurrence, assault frequency, and causes of assaults (or contributing factors). 1.4.2 Ensure that reports, including all pertinent details of the incident, are typically requested from the operator on the same day. 1.4.3 Collect information that describes the incident and the circumstances surrounding the incident such as: – Where did the incident occur? – Was security notified and did he/she respond? – What time did the incident occur? – Was the perpetrator a stranger, a regular passenger, a co-worker or otherwise familiar? – Were any threats made before the incident occurred? – What type of weapon did the attacker use against the worker? How did the perpetrator obtain the weapon? – What were the main factors that contributed to the incident? – What could have prevented or minimized the damage caused by this incident? 1.5 Establish policies and procedures for obtaining medical care, counseling, workers’ compensation, or legal assistance after a violent episode or injury. 1.5.1 Develop procedures to address responding to injuries to driver/operators including transportation to medical facility. 1.5.2 Develop additional assistance necessary to the employee. If the bus operator is transported to a medical facility, a member of the management team will go to the facility to provide support to the employee and his/her family. The response team schedules follow-up sessions with the employee following the event, and the bus Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

“Incident-Based” Threat Assessment Response Protocol and Evaluation Methodology 113 operator’s direct supervisor continues outreach activities to the employee on an ongoing basis. Following a violent assault and a recovery period, if it is determined that the employee is unable to return to his/her duties as a bus operator, the agency has a Transitional Return to Work program. 1.5.3 Ensure that employees are aware of procedures and management mechanisms in place. Step 2. Training Preparing operators to respond effectively to escalating engagements with passengers through focused training on topics such as defusing a volatile situation and customer service can reduce incidents of assault. Giving operators tools so they can overcome difficult situations with conflict resolution train- ing, stress management, customer care and service, and self-awareness while at work can mitigate potential contributions to threatening or violent incidents with passengers or co-workers. 2.1 Review and verify that agency provides training to address operator assault—depending on the agency size, overall route factors, and previous threats or acts of violence against an operator. 2.1.1 Review and create (as needed) training agendas based on standard operating pro- cedures (SOPs) and policies for threatening and violent incidents. 2.1.2 Monitor the risks and vulnerabilities within its modal systems to supplement the contents of its operations training agendas, policies, and SOPs—or develop new ones—with guidance and directives that reflect the agency’s unique operating environment. 2.1.3 Review training agendas, policies, and SOPs for adequacy and adjust, as needed, frequencies for training classes. Inputs such as employee surveys (include the “who, what, when, where, and how” questions that give insight into risk factors and early warnings for threatening or violent incidents) and incident reports can help determine if the agency must change the frequencies of training classes. 2.1.4 Review and prioritize the scheduling of training classes for onboarding new hires and refresher training for existing Operators, as well at the minimal criteria for deeming Operators have successfully completed a training class. Additionally, determine (based on industry best practices and agency-specific needs) which training classes must be mandatory or can be voluntary for Operators at all levels of experience. 2.1.5 Determine effective delivery methods for training classes, including In classroom, In the field training behind the wheel and using computer based/simulation training. Consider factors such as age and different learning styles when developing or con- tracting operator training. Evaluate need to consider upgrading technology used for training, particularly if the class is computer- or simulation-based. 2.2 Provide operator training related to early recognition of warning signs of problematic behavior or potential threatening or violent incidents against Operators. 2.2.1 Train operators to identify not only major incidents of unruly behavior, but also minor incidents that can escalate quickly if not closely monitored or reported. Include methods to assess a potentially threatening or violent incident according to categories: immediate risk, threatening behavior, and worrisome behavior with the potential to escalate to violence. 2.2.2 Train operators on how to respond to unruly passengers once they have identified unruly behavior. Such training should emphasize step-by-step instruction for various techniques and weigh use of using one technique over another. 2.2.3 Ensure that operators understand agency rules for involving themselves in verbal or physical altercations between passengers on vehicle or co-workers and understand agency code of conduct specific to their transit mode. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

114 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: User Guide 2.3 Provide operator training related to risk factors that can cause or contribute to threats and violence. 2.4 Provide operator training of resources available to an operator involved in a threatening or violent incident. 2.4.1 Train operators on available ways to request assistance with an incident. – Include calling for and notifying the proper authorities for help or medical assistance; understanding which agency personnel and external agencies will respond to his or her request for assistance, based on the type of request; using emergency verbal codes to notify Dispatch of the need for law enforcement; and requesting the assignment of one or more safety officers to cover various shifts, work in areas at increased risk of assault against an operator, collect or investigate complaints, or intervene in situations as needed. – Include training in the use of different communications features on transit vehicles that aid in requests for assistance, such as emergency call button or alarm and its features such as contacting the Operations Control Center and activating destination signs to display distress messages on the outside of the vehicle (e.g., “911” or “Emergency, Please Call Police”); and radio or phone use in the event of an emergency or threatening situation. 2.4.2 Train operators on when and how to implement the agency’s emergency action plan, which can help them minimize opportunities for delayed responses or further escalation of threatening or violent incidents. 2.4.3 Incorporate an introduction to the agency’s CISM or similar program in operator training. If an agency does not have such a program, senior leadership should evaluate the benefits and costs of creating and implementing one. – Include an overview of the available program, typical activities and employee benefits such as agency’s policy on threatening or violent incidents against opera- tors; crisis response team and each team member’s role; agency’s immediate and subsequent post-incident contact with the operator; Workers’ Compensation and Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). – Include additional support options used on an as needed basis such as Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), outreach to an on-call manager, legal assistance, peer support group and other counseling options. 2.4.4 Incorporate into training procedures for allowing the operator to return to work (e.g., documented clearance from a medical and—if needed—mental health pro- fessional, etc.) and available options that the operator and supervisor can utilize to reintegrate back to the workplace, such as light-duty work assignments appropriate for an injured Operator or a reassigned route or shift. Step 3. Addressing Threats and Threatening Behavior Understanding the types of threats and assault an operator may encounter while on duty are important to developing procedures to reduce instances of assault. Agency definitions should incorporate overall route factors and previous threats or acts of violence against an operator. Deciphering early warning signs of problematic behavior can be critical to an agency’s ability to interdict it. It is important to recognize the need to distinguish between unruly/disruptive behavior that ultimately threatens customer and employee safety and security and merely rude and/or obnoxious behavior. 3.1 Define what constitutes a threat and threatening behavior. – Ensure definition includes most common forms such as verbal attacks and spitting and minor assaults. Aggravated assaults that result in physical injuries are often preceded by threats and minor incidents. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

“Incident-Based” Threat Assessment Response Protocol and Evaluation Methodology 115 – Identify disruptive and unruly behavior, which may not always be obvious. Early signs such as drunkenness, a group of loud and boisterous passengers and an angry or verbally abusive passenger, can be indicators of potential problems. 3.2 Document all assault incidents, close calls, suspicious persons and abusive behavior. Employees should report any behavior they have witnessed which they regard as threaten- ing or violent, when that behavior may impact a worksite, occurs on an agency controlled site, or may result in violent behavior on an agency controlled site. 3.3 Standardize the identification and reporting of threats and threatening behavior. – Include descriptions of the incident and the circumstances surrounding the incident, such as: � Where did the incident occur? � Was security notified and did he/she respond? � What time did the incident occur? � Was the perpetrator a stranger, a regular passenger, a co-worker or otherwise familiar? � Were any threats made before the incident occurred? � What type of weapon did the attacker use against the worker? How did the perpetrator obtain the weapon? � What were the main factors that contributed to the incident? � What could have prevented or minimized the damage caused by this incident? – Capture assault characteristics, such as frequently occurring assault types, time period of occurrence, assault frequency, and causes of assaults (or contributing factors to help agencies address and mitigate assaults). 3.4 Establish a uniform reporting system for incidents of harassment, threats, and other inappropriate behavior and regular review of reports. 3.4.1 Develop formal procedures and forms to guide employees in handling and documenting transit vehicle incidents including threats or assaults. – Ensure all actions taken are captured. E.g., Was employee taken out of service? Was employee referred to the EAP, Health Services Department? Ensure all notifications made (supervisors, department head, Police, EAP, Health Services, HR, etc.) are documented. 3.4.2 Confirm that organization has specific forms for documenting incidents such as incident/injury report form and personal injury/assault/violent acts checklist. Step 4. Threat Assessment Effective threat assessment includes the assessment of the credibility and potential viability of an expression of intent to do harm and an evaluation of the intent and capability of the actor to carry out the threat. 4.1 Establish a formal methodology for determining the risk level of threats and approaches and/or recommendations for managing risk. 4.1.1 Identify assault characteristics, such as frequently occurring assault types, time period of occurrence, assault frequency, and causes of assaults (or contributing factors). 4.1.2 Assess credibility and potential viability of an expression of intent to do harm. 4.1.3 Evaluate threat based on assessment factors such as the likelihood of threat to become an assault and trends from previous incidents (e.g., immediate risk situation, where an operator needs help immediately, or worrisome behavior, which has the potential to become violent behavior). 4.1.4 Evaluate potential that the threat may change over time based on motivation and behavior (e.g., grievance or grudge involved, efforts made to resolve problem). Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

116 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: User Guide 4.2 Evaluate the intent and capability of the actor to carry out the threat. 4.2.1 Understand the exact nature and context of the threat and/or threatening behavior and if the situation or circumstance that led to action/behavior still exists. 4.2.2 Confirm the identified target (general or specific) and determine if person making threat is known to driver, their family or transit agency. 4.2.3 Identify the threatener’s apparent motivation, if possible. E.g., Is the person making threat known to the police, social services, and another local authority? 4.2.4 Determine the threatener’s ability to carry out the threat. E.g., Is there a known history of violence or harassment from person? Step 5. Threat Management Gathering information on threats to analyze them and make an assessment regarding the potential for violence is critical to defusing and managing the incidents and minimizes the effect on the workplace. 5.1 Identify workplace violence incident by severity of threat. – If high level of threat, determine if an emergency situation still exists or if people need help now. Determine need to notify police, supervisor or department head. – If medium level of threat, determine what can be done to reduce or minimize the threat. E.g., Could a crime have been committed? Do police need to be notified? Can be resolved without the police department? Does the incident require the services of the EAP or Human Resources department? – If low level of threat, determine what needs to be done to capture the nature of threat and identify any preventive approaches, training or changes in procedures necessary to ensure threat level does not escalate. 5.2 Identify preventive measures appropriate for preventing types of assaults and attacks experienced by agency. Effective controls for procedural measures include: – Emergency communications and vehicle location technologies which have been found to improve incident response. – Audio surveillance which has been found useful in addressing verbal attacks and threats. – Video surveillance found to be effective for deterrence and post-assault identification and prosecution of assailants. – Training in customer relations, conflict mitigation, and gang-related violence. – Enforcing passenger codes of conduct can assist in detecting and deterring crime and in enhancing the perception of security within transit systems. Step 6. Threat Assessment and Incident Response Formal threat and incident investigation processes such as Threat Assessment Teams that identify potentially violent situations and recommend procedures for responding to those situations can be effective in reducing assaults and incidents of violence. 6.1 Establish a formal threat/incident investigation process to identify potentially violent situations and recommend procedures for responding to those situations. 6.2 Define roles and responsibilities of threat assessment team members to gather informa- tion and analyze it. – Include personnel that can represent the perspectives of bus operators, management, police, and union (if union representation at agency). Include personnel or mental health professionals if possible. – Assign managers or supervisors to report to accident scenes for investigation processes to make assessment regarding the potential for violence, develop a plan to defuse/man- age the incident and respond to the incident’s effect on the workplace. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

“Incident-Based” Threat Assessment Response Protocol and Evaluation Methodology 117 6.3 Establish a formal methodology for determining the risk level of threats and approaches and/or recommendations for managing risk. – Utilize standard forms/checklist to document investigations by the threat assessment team. – Ensure that assessment teams meet on regular basis to review all incidents and statistical reports, discuss how the incidents were resolved, and identify any trends. Step 7. Evaluation Strategies for developing safety and security protocols to help prevent assaults against transit Operators are only as effective as the information that is collected. Agencies can use incident reports, surveys, performance metrics, and internal teams to evaluate the efficacy of updated safety and security measures, allocate resources based on trends, and identify new strategies to create or improve proactive responses to threatening and violent incidents. As an agency works on developing its evalu- ation protocol, it must consider the framework within which reported threats and violence against Operators will be reviewed and corrective actions defined. 7.1 Measure the frequency and severity of workplace violence to determine if prevention programs are having an effect. Track verbal abuses and “near misses” as well as assaults to learn how to prevent incidents from recurring. 7.1.1 Develop or research incident-related metrics and characteristics to use for addressing and mitigating incidents such as frequently occurring incident types, time and location of incidents, incident frequency, and causes of incidents (or con- tributing factors). 7.1.2 Identify other sources from which to gather incident-related data such as threat/ vulnerability assessment teams or task forces; crime management and information assessment tools; safety departments and National Transit Database (NTD). 7.2 Analyze trends and rates in violence-related injuries, lost work time, etc., such as frequently occurring assault types, time period of occurrence, assault frequency, and causes of assaults (or contributing factors). Understanding these characteristics can help agencies address and mitigate assaults. 7.2.1 Analyze trends and rates that can inform the efficacy of policy and procedural changes. 7.2.2 Report all or selected metrics to agency management, external agency stake- holders and the public as supportive evidence for the benefits of improved transit security. 7.3 Survey employees before-and-after making job or work site changes or installing security measures or new systems to determine their effectiveness. 7.3.1 Develop procedures outlining the information operators must report following threatening or violent incidents. 7.3.2 Gather and incorporate any surveys performed by unions about threatening or violent incidents operators have experienced or witnessed on transit vehicles or the transit property. 7.3.3 Involve operators, supervisors, and unions in the selection, design, implementation and evaluation of anti-violence remedies. Their input, in addition to those from other agency departments and senior management, can significantly reduce the risk and prevalence of assaults within the transit system, as well as reduce the resulting impacts of those assaults. 7.3.4 Determine the frequency (e.g., bi-annually, annually) for conducting future sur- veys to identify additional areas for improved responses to threatening or violent incidents by the agency. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

118 Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators: User Guide 7.4 Keep abreast of new strategies for dealing with workplace violence as they develop. 7.4.1 Develop an effective and consistent forum by which the agency can define and implement new strategies for dealing with threatening or violent incidents as they develop. A task force can be formed to bring together key agency departments that discuss approaches to reducing assaults against Operators. They can then define implementable mitigation strategies to combat the assault-related issues. 7.4.2 Determine the frequency for re-engaging the selected forum in the future. As with before-and-after surveys, follow-up data collection and analysis are important in monitoring the efficacy of any implemented strategy. Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Abbreviations and acronyms used without definitions in TRB publications: A4A Airlines for America AAAE American Association of Airport Executives AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program ADA Americans with Disabilities Act APTA American Public Transportation Association ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATA American Trucking Associations CTAA Community Transportation Association of America CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program DHS Department of Homeland Security DOE Department of Energy EPA Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FAST Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (2015) FHWA Federal Highway Administration FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration FRA Federal Railroad Administration FTA Federal Transit Administration HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012) NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NTSB National Transportation Safety Board PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (2005) TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program TDC Transit Development Corporation TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998) TRB Transportation Research Board TSA Transportation Security Administration U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation Tools and Strategies for Eliminating Assaults Against Transit Operators, Volume 2: User Guide Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.