Pollinator Habitat Conservation Along Roadways, Volume 10: Midwest (2023)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

3-1 Chapter 3 Imperiled Pollinator Profiles The Midwest region, which includes Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, is home to a diverse assemblage of pollinators (Figure 1-1). In this region, three species are listed under the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA), including the rusty patched bumble bee (Bombus affinis), the first bumble bee covered by the ESA, and one candidate species as of March 2022. However, there are many imperiled pollinators in this region that are not protected by the ESA. In this section, profiles are provided of ESA listed and candidate pollinator species found in the Midwest as well as imperiled pollinators that have the potential to be listed in the future, based on NatureServe rankings and expert opinion (Table 3-1). The profiles of imperiled species not listed under the ESA cover four imperiled bumble bees, four imperiled butterflies, and one imperiled moth. This is not an exhaustive list of all declining pollinators in the region; the focus is on species in need of conservation that have a broad distribution and those that are more likely to affect Departments of Transportation (DOTs). An overview of the basic biology of bees, butterflies, and other insect pollinators can be found in Chapter 2. This section presents information on life history, distribution, threats, and habitat requirements for imperiled pollinators in this region. Information on known adult flight times (i.e., the breeding period) and larval active times (for butterflies and moths; larval bees live within nests) are included. The profiles also include a list of important plants that are used by each species as host plants or for pollen and/or nectar. Some of these plants are nonnative species or noxious weeds. These species are included in the profiles, as the information may be useful, but using them in revegetation efforts is not recommended (see Chapter 7 for more). Also provided are some basic conservation recommendations and information on the effects of roadside management on each species, when such information is available. Insects generally tend to be less well studied than vertebrates; therefore, very little is known about the biology and habitat requirements of some of these species. Other pollinator species may be better studied, but rigorous studies of the effects of different management practices on the species or their habitat may still be lacking. The best recommendations are based on the available information. The profiles provide information on life cycles, host plants, habitat needs, and adult flight times that can be used to tailor maintenance and revegetation decisions (Chapters 6 and 7). Also provided are the general active times for adults and larvae. It should be noted that active times may shift regionally, such as with elevation or latitude, or from year to year with changes in climate. However, consulting with local experts, as well as biologists from state and federal agencies, is recommended to help develop meaningful management plans for species of interest in a particular area because the profiles cannot capture the site-specific nuances that should be considered. As the profiles indicate, habitat loss is a primary driver of species’ declines. Roads can be a source of habitat fragmentation (Box 5-3). However, with investments in high-quality revegetation (revegetation that prioritizes usage of native plants and high plant diversity, including an abundance of flowering plants that provide pollen and nectar or act as host plants for butterflies) where appropriate, roadsides can also provide an ideal opportunity

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-2 to increase habitat connectivity for many species, including pollinators. It is important to note that although some of the species profiled in this section may be unlikely to use roadside habitat for breeding, individuals may still use roadside habitat for nectar or pollen or as movement corridors. Therefore, it is worthwhile to invest in high-quality habitat restoration projects along roadsides that are near natural areas, preserves, and populations of imperiled species. Another common threat to many imperiled butterflies in the United States is noxious and invasive plants that displace required host plants. Here again, investing in high-quality habitat restoration, using native plants, can benefit imperiled pollinators, even if those pollinators are not using roadside habitat, by helping to slow the spread of invasive plants into key habitat areas. This section includes profiles of pollinator species that may not occur in roadside habitat but may be found in other DOT land holdings, such as mitigation areas (Table 3-1). Table 3-1. List of imperiled pollinator species in the Midwest region. Scientific Name  Common Name  Status#  ESA Listed Pollinator Species  Bombus affinis  Rusty patched bumble bee  Endangered  Danaus plexippus   Monarch butterfly  Candidate  Lycaeides melissa samuelis  Karner blue butterfly  Endangered  Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii  Mitchell’s satyr butterfly  Endangered  Declining Pollinator Species  Bombus fervidus  Yellow bumble bee  G3G4  Bombus fraternus  Southern plains bumble bee  G2G4  Bombus pensylvanicus*  American bumble bee  G3G4  Bombus variabilis  Variable cuckoo bumble bee  G1G2  Callophrys irus  Frosted elfin butterfly  G2G3  Hesperia leonardus  Leonard’s skipper  G4  Hesperia ottoe  Ottoe skipper  G3  Papaipema eryngii  Rattlesnake‐master borer moth  G1G2  Speyeria idalia*  Regal fritillary  G3?  * Species are under review or on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service workplan to be evaluated for listing  under the ESA as of March 2022.  # Status of pollinators is either the ESA status for listed species or is taken from NatureServe (accessed  March 2022) for species not listed under the ESA.    G1: Critically Imperiled. At very high risk of extinction due to extreme rarity (often five or fewer  populations), very steep declines, or other factors.   G2: Imperiled. At high risk of extinction due to very restricted range, very few populations (often 20 or  fewer), steep declines, or other factors.   G3: Vulnerable. At moderate risk of extinction due to a restricted range, relatively few populations  (often 80 or fewer), recent and widespread declines, or other factors. 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-3  G4: Apparently Secure. Uncommon but not rare; some cause for long‐term concern due to declines or  other factors.   G5: Secure. Common; widespread and abundant.   G#G#: Range Rank. A numeric range rank (e.g., G2G3) is used to indicate the range of uncertainty in  the status of a species or community.   T#: Infraspecific Taxon (for subspecies or varieties). The status of infraspecific taxa is indicated by a  “T‐rank” following the species’ global rank. For example, the global rank of a critically imperiled  subspecies of an otherwise widespread and common species would be G5T1.    ?: Denotes inexact numeric rank.  3.1 Rusty Patched Bumble Bee (Bombus affinis)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Adult rusty patched bumble bee (top left) and known distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e.,  breeding period) are shown in the chart (bottom). Photo credit: Rich Hatfield/The Xerces Society. Map  Source: ecos.fws.gov, accessed March 2022.  Order: Hymenoptera Family: Apidae Status: Endangered Distribution: Once common throughout the northeastern United States, this species has experienced severe decline in range and relative abundance. Since 1997, this species has typically been observed in very low numbers in the Midwest. Where it occurs: Forest, Grassland, Urban Flight time: This species is typically active on the landscape from late April to mid-October. Between late October and early April, queens are overwintering in the ground. How to recognize: This bumble bee has black hairs on the face and a yellow thorax with a black circle in center. The first two segments of the abdomen are yellow; workers and males often have a rusty-colored patch on second segment. Body size: Large. Queens range from 12 to 23 millimeters (0.75 to 0.92 inch); workers range from 9 to 16 millimeters (0.37 to 0.64 inch).

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-4 Habitat needs: Availability of food and nesting resources are key features in determining the success of a bumble bee colony. It is critical to maintain a bloom of floral resources throughout spring, summer, and fall to supply bumble bees with a diversity and abundance of food. Top reasons for decline, if known: Multiple factors affect bumble bee decline, including habitat loss, pesticide exposure, climate change, pathogens and parasites, as well as the introduction of nonnative species. The greatest threats contributing to the decline of this species are very likely the commercial rearing and shipping of bumble bees, which spreads pathogens and parasites, and increased competition for resources. General conservation recommendations: Preserve, restore, and create high-quality habitat that includes suitable nesting, foraging, and overwintering sites throughout a species’ range. Assess and mitigate risk of pesticide use in or near suitable habitat to avoid treating flowers in bloom or contaminating nesting and overwintering sites. Avoid the introduction of managed honey bees and managed bumble bees to areas of natural habitat to protect and minimize disease exposure. Roadside management recommendations: Intensive mowing may deplete floral resources and disturb species that have nested aboveground on the roadside. Reduced mowing frequency would alleviate this problem. In areas that are likely to contain B. affinis, avoid mowing from April through October to avoid harming nests. Use a diversity of plants in revegetation to ensure that multiple species are in bloom from spring through fall. Blanket spraying of herbicides can affect the health of bumble bees in the area by reducing floral resources. When managing weeds in B. affinis habitat, replace weeds that provide pollen and nectar with flowering plants (Table 3-2). A recent study of roadside mortality of bumble bee queens in Sweden found that bumble bee queens used roadsides with both high plant diversity and low plant diversity in similar proportions when looking for nests. Queen mortality increased with traffic volume but was slightly lower along roadsides with higher quality vegetation. The authors recommend improving habitat quality along roadsides, and keeping a mown buffer strip next to the road to reduce queen mortality. Table 3-2. Plants used by bumble bees. Species Name by Bloom  Period  Common Name  Notes   Early  Geranium maculatum  Spotted geranium  Purple; perennial  Anemone spp.  Anemones  Multiple colors; perennial  Baptisia alba  White Wild Indigo  White; Perennial  Dicentra spp.  Bleeding hearts  White/ pink; perennial  Geranium maculatum  Spotted / Wild Geranium  Purple; Perennial 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-5 Species Name by Bloom  Period  Common Name  Notes   Hydrophyllum spp  Waterleaf  White/ purple; perennial  Penstemon digitalis  Foxglove Beardtongue  White; Perennial  Mid  Agastache  Giant hyssops  White/pink/purple;  perennial  Asclepias verticillata  Whorled Milkweed  White; Perennial  Dalea purpurea  Purple Prairie Clover  Purple; Perennial  Echinacea padilla  Pale Purple Coneflower  Pink / Purple; Perennial  Eupatorium spp.  Snakeroots  White; perennial  Eutrochium spp.  Joe‐Pye weeds  Pink/purple; perennial  Monarda spp.  Bee balm  Pink/purple/red; perennial  Monarda fistulosa  Bee Balm / Wild Bergamot  Purple; Perennial  Veronicastrum  Veronicastrum  White/pink/blue; perennial  Late  Cirsium altissimum  Tall Thistle  Pink / Purple; Biennial  Salvia azurea  Azure Blue Sage / Pitcher Sage  Blue; Perennial  Solidago spp.  Goldenrods  Yellow; perennial  Symphyotrichum novae‐ angliae  New England Aster  Purple; Perennial  Verbesina alternifolia  Wingstem / Yellow Ironweed  Yellow; Perennial  3.1.1 References Cariveau, D., E. Evans, and M. Boone. 2019. Monitoring and habitat assessment of declining bumble bees in roadsides in the Twin Cities metro area of Minnesota. Minnesota Department of Transportation. Dániel-Ferreira, J., Å. Berggren, R. Bommarco, J. Wissman, and E. Öckinger. 2022. Bumblebee queen mortality along roads increase with traffic. Biological conservation 272:109643.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-6 Hatfield, R., S. Jepsen, E., Mader, S. H., Black, and M. Shepherd. 2012. Conserving Bumble Bees. Guidelines for Creating and Managing Habitat for America's Declining Pollinators. Jepsen, S., E. Evans, R., Thorp, R., Hatfield, and S. H. Black. 2013. Petition to List the Rusty Patched Bumble Bee, Bombus affinis (Cresson), 1863, as an Endangered Species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Available: https://www.xerces.org/sites/default/files/2018- 07/Bombus-affinis-petition.pdf. Williams, P. H., R. W. Thorp, L. L. Richardson, and S. R. Colla. 2014. Bumble Bees of North America: An Identification Guide. Princeton, NJ; Oxford, UK. Princeton University Press, doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wpzr9 Wolf, Amy T., Watson, Jay C., Hyde, Terrell J., Carpenter, Susan G., and Jean, Robert P. (n.d.). Floral Resources Used by the Endangered Rusty Patched Bumble Bee (Bombus affinis) in the Midwestern United States. 3.2 Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult monarch (top left) and monarch distribution within the U.S. (top right). Adult flight times (i.e.,  breeding period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for monarchs in this region are shown in the chart  (bottom). Adult and larval active times vary regionally; see Figure 3‐1 for regionally specific suggested  management windows. Photo credit: Jennifer Hopwood.    Order: Lepidoptera Family: Nymphalidae Status: Candidate Distribution: As of 150 years ago, the monarch was restricted to southern Canada, the lower 48 states, Mexico, Central America, and northwestern South America. In recent years, the species has spread or been introduced to several other areas, including Spain, Hawaii, Australia, and New Zealand.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-7 Where it occurs: During the summer breeding season and early during fall migration, monarchs can be found in every county of the Midwest. These monarchs are part of the eastern population of monarchs that migrates to central Mexico in fall. How to recognize: Orange and black monarchs are larger than most butterflies with similar coloration. In contrast to viceroys, a species with a close resemblance, monarchs lack the black line across the middle of each hind wing. Behaviorally, monarchs tend to glide more than most other butterfly species. They lack the steady, rapid wingbeat of the great spangled fritillary (Speyeria cybele), for instance. Life cycle: Monarchs that developed on milkweeds in the southern United States in April arrive in the Midwest in May and June (Figure 3-1). They lay their eggs on Midwest milkweeds, producing the second generation of monarchs. The second generation produces the third, and the third generation produces the fourth in late July and August. From late August to early October, fourth-generation monarchs migrate south from the Midwest to overwintering grounds in Mexico. Habitat needs: Although monarchs tend to avoid dense hardwood forests, they use most terrestrial and wetland ecosystems in the Midwest as long as those ecosystems have milkweeds and some nectar sources (Table 3-3). This includes roadsides where monarchs lay eggs on a variety of milkweed species along well-drained roadsides and in roadside ditches. Top reasons for decline, if known: Reasons for decline include the loss and degradation of overwintering and breeding habitat, loss of habitat through conversion to row-crop agriculture and urban development, the use of herbicides that kill milkweeds and nectar sources, inadequate habitat management (e.g., not enough or too much disturbance, poorly timed disturbances), and the use of insecticides that kill monarchs or cause sublethal effects. General conservation recommendations: Given the migratory nature of the eastern population of the monarch, its survival is dependent on actions throughout the range of the eastern population. In the Midwest, monarchs can be helped by planting native milkweeds and nectar sources, controlling invasive species, and implementing proper habitat management practices, including well-timed prescribed burning and mowing. Roadside management recommendations: Frequent mowing will very likely kill many monarch eggs, larvae, and pupae if it occurs during monarch breeding season (May through early September in most of the Midwest; see Figure 3-1 for management windows). Mowing can also reduce nectar sources for adults when it occurs too frequently during the growing season. Limited research in eastern North America has shown that summer mowing can be used to extend the availability of milkweed plants for monarch breeding; monarchs often prefer to lay eggs on fresh milkweed growth rather than older growth. In the Great Lakes region, common milkweed mowed in July had higher numbers of eggs and larvae compared to unmown and senescing milkweed; it is likely that mowing at a similar time would have similar effects in the Midwest. However, it is unknown if the benefit of additional milkweed availability in the fall outweighs the costs of the larval mortality caused by summer mowing. Monarch butterfly larvae  Photo Credit: Ray Moranz/The Xerces  Society 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-8 Roadside managers can achieve a diverse mosaic of habitat to sustain healthy ecosystems for monarchs and other insects by leaving unmown strips as refugia, delaying mowing until late summer or fall, and increasing the heterogeneity of mowing (e.g., mowing in patches or at different heights). Mowing outside the growing season and a single mowing in mid- summer can help maintain the open conditions needed for host plants and nectar sources to thrive. Table 3-3. Plants used by the monarch butterfly. Species Name   Common Name  Notes  Larval Host Plants  Asclepias hirtella  Tall green milkweed    Asclepias incarnata  Swamp milkweed    Asclepias ovalifolia  Oval‐leaf milkweed    Asclepias purpurascens  Purple milkweed    Asclepias syriaca  Common milkweed    Asclepias tuberosa  Butterfly milkweed    Asclepias verticillata  Whorled milkweed    Asclepias viridiflora  Green comet milkweed    Asclepias viridis  Green antelopehorn    Multiple other Asclepias spp.  Milkweeds    Cynanchum laeve  Honeyvine milkweed    Nectar Plants  Asclepias spp.  Milkweeds    Cephalanthus occidentalis  Buttonbush    Cirsium altissimum  Tall thistle    Cirsium discolor  Field thistle    Echinacea purpurea  Purple coneflower    Eutrochium maculatum  Spotted Joe‐Pye weed    Liatris aspera  Rough blazing star   

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-9 Species Name   Common Name  Notes  Liatris pycnostachya  Prairie blazing star    Liatris spicata  Dense blazing star    Monarda fistulosa  Wild bergamot    Oligoneuron rigidum  Rigid goldenrod    Solidago altissima  Tall goldenrod    Solidago speciosa  Showy goldenrod    Symphyotrichum novae‐ angliae  New England aster    Symphyotrichum spp.  Various aster species    Taken from handout created by Monarch Joint Venture and The Xerces Society:  https://monarchjointventure.org/images/uploads/documents/MowingForMonarchsUpdated.pdf  Figure 3-1. Management timing windows for monarchs in the United States.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-10 Roadside milkweed guides:  Milkweeds of KS and MO: https://xerces.org/publications/fact-sheets/roadside- habitat-for-monarchs-milkweeds-of-ks-mo  Milkweeds of IA and MN: https://xerces.org/publications/fact-sheets/roadside- habitat-for-monarchs-milkweeds-of-ia-mn  Milkweeds of the Great Lakes: https://xerces.org/publications/fact-sheets/roadside- habitat-for-monarchs-milkweeds-of-great-lakes 3.2.1 References Baum, K.A., and E.K. Mueller. 2015. Grassland and Roadside Management Practices Affect Milkweed Abundance and Opportunities for Monarch Recruitment. Monarchs in a Changing World, pp.197–202. Haan, N.L., and D.A. Landis. 2019. Grassland Disturbance Increases Monarch Butterfly Oviposition and Decreases Arthropod Predator Abundance. Biological Conservation, 233, pp.185–192. Halbritter, D.A., J.C. Daniels, D.C. Whitaker, and L. Huang. 2015. Reducing Mowing Frequency Increases Floral Resource and Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea) Abundance in Managed Roadside Margins. Florida Entomologist, 98(4), 1081–1092. NatureServe. 2020. NatureServe Explorer [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available: https://explorer.natureserve.org/. Accessed: September 20, 2020. Xerces Society. 2016. Monarch Nectar Plants: Midwest. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019a. Roadside Habitat for Monarchs: Milkweeds of Iowa and Minnesota. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019b. Roadside Habitat for Monarchs: Milkweeds of Kansas and Missouri. Xerces Society, Portland, OR. Xerces Society and Monarch Joint Venture. 2019c. Roadside Habitat for Monarchs: Milkweeds of the Great Lakes. Xerces Society, Portland, OR

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-11 3.3 Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult Karner blue butterfly (top left) and known distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e., breeding  period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for this this region are shown in the chart (bottom). See Life  Cycle for more. Photo credit: Joel Trick/USFWS. Map Source: ecos.fws.gov, accessed March 2022.    Order: Lepidoptera Family: Lycaenidae Status: Endangered Distribution: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Wisconsin Where it occurs: This species is found in openings in oak savannas, pine-oak savannas, and pine barrens. This species can sometimes be found in sand dunes and dry prairie habitats with lupines. How to recognize: These are small butterflies, with a wingspan of up to 1¼ inches. In males, the upper sides of the wings are blue or purplish, with a black border and white fringe. In females, the upper sides of the wings are more brown and have a row of black and orange spots along the bottom of the hind wings. In both sexes, the undersides of the wings are grayish with black spots. Life cycle: This species is bivoltine, with two generations per year. Adult flight time runs from late May to mid-June for the first generation as well as mid-July through early August. Larvae feed on lupine leaves, flowers, buds, and fruit. The first generation can be found from April to June; the second generation can be found from June through July. This species overwinters in the egg stage. This species may be tended by ants. Habitat needs: This species uses lupines as the host plant. Lupines are not the preferred nectar plants, but some first-generation adults will nectar from lupines. This species will take nectar from a variety of plants (Table 3-4). A lack of nectar sources in late summer can make a site unsuitable for the Karner blue. Karner blues also require sites with some shade.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-12 Top reasons for decline, if known: The reasons for decline include habitat loss and fragmentation, which have led to small population sizes and greatly reduced genetic variability; habitat degradation is another reason. Climate change may play a role in current and future declines through phenological mismatches and extreme weather events. General conservation recommendations: Protect and restore habitat. Large stretches of habitat are most likely needed to save this species. Establish corridors for adults to move through and maintain forest openings for the host plant to grow. Fire and/or mowing can be used to maintain habitat but should be done with care to avoid harming individuals and conducted in a way that leaves some areas unburned. Roadside management recommendations: Avoid mowing from April through August when butterflies are active. Reduce the frequency of mowing outside the clear zone to increase the abundance of floral resources. Avoid using herbicide on host plants and nectar plants. Efforts should be made to control or eradicate non-native lupines in roadside habitat where Karner blue butterflies and their native lupines occur. Table 3-4. Plants used by the Karner blue butterfly*. Species Name   Common Name  Larval Host Plants    Lupinus perennis  Wild lupine  Nectar Plants    Phlox pilosa  Prairie phlox  Coreopsis lanceolata  Sand coreopsis  Krigia biflora  False dandelion  Ceanothus americanus and other Ceanothus spp.  New Jersey tea  Lithospermum spp.  Stoneseeds  Arabis lyrata  Lyrate rockcress  Potentilla simplex  Common cinquefoil  Rubus spp.  Blackberry2  Asclepias spp.  Milkweed   Centaurea maculosa  Spotted knapweed1  Erigeron strigosus  Prairie fleabane  Euphorbia corollata  Flowering spurge 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-13 Species Name   Common Name  Melilotus alba  Sweetclover1  Monarda punctata  Spotted beebalm  * This species specializes on wild lupine but uses a wide variety of plants for nectar. This is a partial list of  nectar plants used by this species.  1 Non‐native  2 This genus includes native and nonnative species; some of the nonnative species are invasive.  3.3.1 References Chan, P.K., and L. Packer. 2006. Assessment of Potential Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) (Family: Lycanidae) Reintroduction Sites in Ontario, Canada. Restoration Ecology 14:645–652. Haack, R.A. 1993. The Endangered Karner Blue Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): Biology, Management Considerations, and Data Gaps. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report NC. 83-100. Hess, A.N., R.J. Hess, J.L.M. Hess, B. Paulan, and J.A.M. Hess. 2014. American Bison Influences on Lepidopteran and Wild Blue Lupine Distribution in an Oak Savanna Landscape. Journal of Insect Conservation 18:327–338. Kleintjes Neff, P., C. Locke, and E. Lee-Mӓder. 2017. Assessing a Farmland Set-aside Conservation Program for an Endangered Butterfly: USDA State Acres for Wildlife Enhancement (SAFE) for the Karner Blue Butterfly. Journal of Insect Conservation 21:929–941. Patterson, T. A., R. Grundel, J. D. K. Dzurisin, R. L. Knutson, and J. J. Hellmann. 2020. “Evidence of an extreme weather-induced phenological mismatch and a local extirpation of the endangered Karner blue butterfly.” Conservation Science and Practice 2. Pickens, B.A., and K.V. Root. 2008. Factors Affecting Host-plant Quality and Nectar Use for the Karner Blue Butterfly: Implications for Oak Savanna Restoration. Swengel, A.B., and S.R. Swengel. 2018. Patterns of Long-term Population Trends of Three Lupine-feeding Butterflies in Wisconsin. Diversity 10:31. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) 5- year Review. Wood, E.M., A.M. Pidgeon, C. Gratton, and T.T. Wilder. 2011. Effects of Oak Barrens Habitat Management for Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides samuelis) on the Avian Community. Biological Conservation 144:3117–3126

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-14 3.4 Mitchell’s Satyr Butterfly (Neonympha mitchellii  mitchellii)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult Mitchell’s satyr butterfly (top left) and known distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e., breeding  period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for this region are shown in the chart (bottom). Lighter  shades indicate uncertain but likely active times (see Life Cycle for more). Photo credit: Don Henise/Flickr  Creative Commons. Map Source: ecos.fws.gov, accessed March 2022.    Order: Lepidoptera Family: Nymphalidae Status: Endangered Distribution: Alabama, Indiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Virginia (Historically: also Ohio, New Jersey, possibly Maryland) Where it occurs: This species prefers wetland habitats dominated by Carex. Northern populations occur in prairie fen habitats, which are wetlands supplied by a perennial alkaline groundwater flow. Such habitats are often dominated by sedges, grasses, and wildflowers. This butterfly prefers ecotonal habitats such as forest edges and areas with scattered woody vegetation rather than open areas. In southern locations, it inhabits wetlands influenced by beaver activity, preferring patches dominated by sedges. Populations of this species within the Mid-Atlantic region are found only in Virginia. There, they occupy wetlands or groundwater seepage slopes where sedges (Carex sp.) and bulrushes (Scirpus sp.) are dominant. Many of these habitats are also used for light to moderate grazing. How to recognize: This is a medium-sized, brownish butterfly, with a wingspan of 2.5 to 3.0 centimeters. The outer wings have eyespots (ocelli) near the edges of the wings. The eyespots, which are round or oval, are dark and have a yellow border; these are most prominent on the hindwings. The hindwings also have four orangeish stripes, two on each side of the eyespots. Life cycle: Adults can be observed from late June through mid-July. Fourth instar larvae overwinter at the base of host plants and begin feeding again in spring. In late spring to early summer, larvae form a chrysalis. This stage lasts 10 to 15 days. Northern populations and populations in Virginia are univoltine. Populations in Alabama and Mississippi are

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-15 bivoltine, with adult flight occurring from late May through late June as well as early August through early September. Adults will lay eggs on a variety of plants. After hatching, larvae move to host plants. This species uses sedges as host plants, with Carex stricta very likely the primary host plant. Adults are short lived; the average life span is 2 to 5 days. Northern populations are rarely observed nectaring, but southern populations (Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi) have been observed nectaring (Table 3-5). Habitat needs: This species is found in early successional wetland habitat dominated by sedges, especially in southern populations. In many areas, the habitat conditions required for this species are maintained by disturbance from beavers. This creates a shifting mosaic of appropriate habitat, with populations of Mitchell’s satyr moving to new patches that form in response to activity from beavers or other disturbances. Top reasons for decline, if known: Reasons for decline include habitat loss, alteration of natural ecological processes, and disturbance regimes that affect maintained habitat. General conservation recommendations: Implement habitat conservation and maintenance programs and establish movement corridors. Southern populations occur on protected land. Roadside management recommendations: The development of roadways can alter wetland hydrology and threaten water quality. Construction and right-of-way maintenance can create disturbances that perpetuate invasive species—especially Phragmites, hybrid Typha, and reed canary grass—in adjacent wetlands. Such species can form monocultures that are not suitable for the satyr. Reducing the frequency of mowing beyond the clear zone can reduce harmful impacts on butterflies as well as the host plants and nectar plants they rely on. Avoid mowing habitat with host plants (Table 3-5) from spring through summer to avoid harming adults or larvae. Avoid spraying important host and nectar plants with herbicides. Table 3-5. Plants used by Mitchell’s satyr butterfly. Species Name   Common Name  Notes   Larval Host Plants  Carex stricta  Tussock sedge  Primary host plant. May use  other sedges as well.  Nectar Plants  Rudbeckia hirta  Black‐eyed Susan  Known for northern  populations  Pycnanthemum virginianum  Mountain mint  Known for northern  populations 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-16 3.4.1 References Hamm, C.A., V. Rademacher, D.A. Landis, and B.L. Williams. 2013a. Data from: Conservation Genetics and the Implication for Recovery of the Endangered Mitchell’s Satyr Butterfly, Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii. Dryad Digital Repository. Hamm, C.A., B.L. Williams, and D.A. Landis. 2013b. Natural History and Conservation Status of the Endangered Mitchell’s Satyr Butterfly: Synthesis and Expansion of Our Knowledge Regarding Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii (French 1889). Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 67:15–28. Kuefler, D., N.M. Haddad, S. Hall, B. Hudgens, B. Bartel, and E. Hoffman. 2008. Distribution, Population Structure, and Habitat Use of the Endangered Saint Francis Satyr Butterfly, Neonympha Mitchellii Francisci. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2009. Mitchell’s Satyr Butterfly (Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii) 5-year Review. 3.5 Bumble Bees: Yellow Bumble Bee (Bombus fervidus),  Southern Plains Bumble Bee (B. fraternus), American  Bumble Bee (B. pensylvanicus), Variable Cuckoo  Bumble Bee (B. variabilis)   Order: Hymenoptera Family: Apidae Habitat Needs: Availability of food and nesting resources are key features in determining the success of a bumble bee colony. It is critical to maintain a bloom of floral resources throughout the spring, summer, and fall to supply bumble bees with a diversity and abundance of pollen and nectar, food for adults and larvae. Bumble bees nest above, on, or under the ground, utilizing pre-existing insulated cavities such as rock piles, areas of dense vegetation (e.g., bunch grasses), or old bird nests or mouse burrows. See Table 3-2 for a list of plants used by bumble bees. Top reasons for decline, if known: Multiple factors affect bumble bee decline, including habitat loss, pesticide exposure, climate change, pathogens and parasites, and the introduction of non-native bee species. General conservation recommendations: Preserve, restore, and create high-quality habitat that includes suitable nesting, foraging, and overwintering sites throughout a species’ range. Assess and mitigate the risk of pesticide use in or near suitable habitat to avoid treating flowers in bloom or contaminating nesting and overwintering sites. Avoid the introduction of managed honey bees and managed bumble bees to areas of natural habitat to protect and minimize disease exposure. Roadside management recommendations: Intensive mowing may deplete floral resources and disturb species that have nested aboveground on the roadside. Reduced mowing frequency would alleviate this problem. When mowing in areas with aboveground nesting species, avoid mowing during the nesting season to avoid harming nests. Use a diversity of plants in revegetation to ensure that multiple species are in bloom from spring

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-17 through fall. Blanket spraying of herbicides can affect the health of bumble bees in the area by reducing floral resources. A recent study of roadside mortality of bumble bee queens in Sweden found that bumble bee queens used roadsides with both high plant diversity and low plant diversity in similar proportions when looking for nests. Queen mortality increased with traffic volume but was slightly lower along roadsides with higher quality vegetation. The authors recommend improving habitat quality along roadsides, and keeping a mown buffer strip next to the road to reduce queen mortality. 3.5.1 Yellow Bumble Bee (Bombus fervidus)   Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Adult yellow bumble bee (top left) and known U.S. state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight times  (i.e., breeding period) are shown in the chart (bottom). Photo credit: Katie Lamke/The Xerces Society.    Status: Vulnerable to apparently secure (G3G4) Distribution: Widespread across the United States, except for south-central and southeast states. Where it occurs: Grassland, Urban, Forest, Shrubland Flight Time: This species is typically active on the landscape from May through September. Between late October and April, queens overwinter in the ground. Nesting behavior: Nests on the surface or aboveground; occasionally nests underground. How to recognize: This bumble bee has black hair on the face. The thorax is yellow, with a narrow black band between the wings. The abdomen is predominantly yellow; the posterior end is black. Note that males may have different color patterns. Body size: Medium. Queens range from 18 to 21 millimeters (0.72 to 0.84 inch); workers range from 11 to 17 millimeters (0.42 to 0.67 inch).

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-18 3.5.2 Southern Plains Bumble Bee (Bombus fraternus)   Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Adult Southern Plains bumble bee (top left) and known U.S. state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight  times (i.e., breeding period) are shown in the chart (bottom). Photo credit: Katie Lamke/The Xerces  Society.      Status: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Endangered. Imperiled to apparently secure (G2G4) Distribution: Central Great Plains to southeastern United States Where it occurs: Grassland, Urban Flight time: This is an early-emerging species, with queens becoming active on the landscape in February and March in the southern states. This species will remain on the landscape through October. Between November and March, queens are overwintering in the ground. Nesting behavior: Nests underground. How to recognize: This bumble bee has black hair on the face and a predominantly yellow thorax with a narrow, black oval between the wings. The first two segments of the abdomen are yellow; Segments 3 through 6 are black, with the hair appressed. Note that males may have different color patterns. Body size: Large. Queens range from 25 to 27 millimeters (0.97 to 1.07 inches); workers range from 15 to 19 millimeters (0.56 to 0.75 inch).

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-19 3.5.3 American Bumble Bee (Bombus pensylvanicus)   Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Adult American bumble bee (top left) and known U.S. state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight times  (i.e., breeding period) are shown in the chart (bottom). Photo credit: Ray Moranz/The Xerces Society.    Status: This species has been petitioned for listing under the ESA. Vulnerable to apparently secure (G3G4). Distribution: Widespread in the United States; absent in much of the mountain West. Where it occurs: Grassland, Urban Flight time: This species is typically active on the landscape late March through October. Between late November and early March, queens are overwintering in the ground. Nesting behavior: Nests mostly on the surface among long grass; occasionally nests underground. How to recognize: This bumble bee has black hair on the face. The thorax has a yellow band in front of the wings, with a black band between the wings; the band behind the wings may be black or yellow. The abdomen’s anterior half is yellow, the posterior half is black (the first segment is sometimes black or half black). Note that males may have different color patterns. Body size: Large. Queens range from 22 to 26 millimeters (0.87 to 1.01 inches); workers range from 13 to 19 millimeters (0.52 to 0.76 inch).

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-20 3.5.4 Variable Cuckoo Bumble Bee (Bombus variabilis)   Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Adult variable cuckoo bumble bee (top left) and known U.S. state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight  times (i.e., breeding period) are shown in the chart (bottom). Photo credit: Laurence  Packer/www.DiscoverLife.org.      Status: Critically imperiled to imperiled (G1G2) Distribution: Midwest of the United States, occurring in the Great Plains and temperate forest areas. Scattered along the coast of the southeastern United States. This species has always been uncommon. Where it occurs: Urban, Grassland, Forest Parasite of: American Bumble Bee (Bombus pensylvanicus) Flight times: This species is typically active on the landscape between May and mid-July, then again from late August through mid-October. During the peak of summer, this species remains in the host’s nest. Nesting behavior: Parasite of the American Bumble Bee (B. pensylvanicus), which usually nests on the surface among long grass; occasionally nests underground. How to recognize: This bumble bee has black hair on the front of the face; the top of the head is yellow. The thorax has a yellow band in front of the wings; the area between the wings may be all yellow, or it may have a black band or a black spot. The area behind wings may have a yellow band or intermixed black hairs. The abdomen is black, unless it is a male, which may display varying degrees of yellow on any segment. Note that males may have different color patterns. Body size: Medium. Females range from 18 to 22 millimeters (0.73 to 0.87 inch). 3.5.5 References Dániel-Ferreira, J., Å. Berggren, R. Bommarco, J. Wissman, and E. Öckinger. 2022. Bumblebee queen mortality along roads increase with traffic. Biological conservation 272:109643.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-21 Hatfield, R., S. Jepsen, E. Mader, S.H. Black, and M. Shepherd. 2012. Conserving Bumble Bees. Guidelines for Creating and Managing Habitat for America's Declining Pollinators, 32 pp. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Portland, OR. Williams, P.H., R.W. Thorp, L.L. Richardson, and S.R. Colla. 2014. Bumble Bees of North America: An Identification Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ; Oxford, UK, doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wpzr9. 3.6 Frosted Elfin Butterfly (Callophrys irus)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult frosted elfin butterfly (top left) and known distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e., breeding  period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for this this region are shown in the chart (bottom). See Life  Cycle for more. Photo credit: Tom Murray/Flickr Creative Commons. Map Source: ecos.fws.gov, accessed  March 2022.  Order: Lepidoptera Family: Lycaenidae Status: Imperiled to vulnerable (G2G3). Very rare in most of the states where it was historically found; continuing to decline recently in most states. This species was petitioned for listing under the ESA but was not listed. Distribution: The historic range was from Texas east to Florida as well as north to Ontario and Maine. However, it is believed to have been extirpated from Illinois, Maine, and Ontario. The species is currently known to occur in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Where it occurs: In the Midwest, only a few populations remain (in Indiana). This species has never been reported from Iowa or Missouri. It occurs in open areas (e.g., savannas, woodlands, powerline rights-of-way) but only when the host plant is also present.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-22 How to recognize: This is a small brown butterfly with intricate patterns that are similar to those of congeners such as the Henry’s elfin but distinguished from them by a small dark spot on the ventral surface near the forewing apex. Life cycle: This species has a single brood per year, with adults flying from late March or early April through May. Females lay eggs on flowers or the flower buds of host plants; larvae eat the plant parts. Larvae take about 5 to 6 weeks to reach the pupal stage, which is spent under litter or just below the soil surface, until emerging as adults the next spring. Habitat needs: The host plant of the frosted elfin in the Midwest is unknown but very likely Lupinus perennis, Baptisia spp., or both. Elsewhere, it appears to require savannas and open woodlands with large populations of its host plant. Interestingly, frosted elfin population density is highest when Lupinus perennis population density is moderate. Top reasons for decline, if known: Reasons for decline include loss of habitat due to the conversion of native ecosystems to urban and suburban development, row-crop agriculture, and intensive forestry. Altered fire regimes are also believed to be a major cause of decline. General conservation recommendations: Protect existing sites with habitat from conversion to other land uses. Implement good habitat management practices, including occasional well-timed prescribed burning or mowing to keep habitat open. Protect habitat from insecticides or broadcast spraying of herbicides. Roadside management recommendations: Frequent mowing will most likely harm frosted elfins and the plants upon which they depend; however, occasional mowing can help maintain the open conditions needed for host plants and nectar sources to thrive. Reduce mowing frequency beyond the clear zone and try to avoid mowing in spring through summer when adults and larvae are active. When mowing at other times of year, setting the mower height to approximately 4 inches will avoid damaging pupae at the soil surface. Avoid spraying host plants and nectar plants (Table 3-6) with herbicides. Table 3-6. Plants used by Frosted elfin butterfly. Species Name   Common Name  Larval Host Plants    Baptisia spp  Wild indigos1  Lupinus perennis  Sundial lupine1  Nectar Plants    Lupinus perennis  Sundial lupine  Viola spp.  Violets  Pycnanthemum spp.  Mountain mints  Vaccinium spp.  Blueberries 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-23 Species Name   Common Name  Rubus spp.  Blackberries2   1 Likely host plant  2 This genus includes native and nonnative species; some of the nonnative species are invasive  3.6.1 References NatureServe. 2020. NatureServe Explorer [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available: https://explorer.natureserve.org/. Accessed: September 03, 2020. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2018. Species Status Assessment Report for the Frosted Elfin (Callophrys irus), Version 1.2. April. Cortland, NY. 3.7 Leonard’s Skipper (Hesperia leonardus)  Photo credit: USFWS    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult flight time may vary with latitude. In lab studies, this species takes 3 months to develop.  Adult Leonard’s skipper (top left) and known state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e.,  breeding period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for this this region are shown in the chart  (bottom). See Life Cycle for more. Photo credit: Chris Smith.    Order: Lepidoptera Family: Hesperiidae Status: Apparently secure (G4) Distribution: This species has a broad distribution in the United States and Canada. In the United States, it can be found in Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-24 Where it occurs: Found in dry habitats (e.g., sand, prairies, savannas, open woodlands). Often prefers areas with little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and blazing star, especially rough blazing star (Liatris aspera). How to recognize: This species has a wingspan of 1.25 to 1.75 inches. The upper sides of the wings are red-orange with a black border. The undersides of the wings are reddish- to orangish-brown with whitish spots in H. l. leonardus. H. l. pawnee often has a reduced number of spots or lacks spots all together, especially the males. Life cycle: Adult flight occurs from August through early October but can start slightly earlier or later, depending on the latitude. Eggs hatch after about 10 days. First and second instar larvae enter diapause until the next spring. Larvae use grasses as host plants, including those in Table 3-7. Like other skippers, they construct shelters for feeding. However, it is not known where the shelters are located in the canopy. Most populations have only a single generation per year. Habitat needs: This species appears to require habitat with grasses, including little bluestem and abundant floral resources, especially rough blazing star (Liatris aspera). Top reasons for decline, if known: The top reason for decline is habitat loss. General conservation recommendations: Protect remaining habitat and increase connectivity among habitat patches. Fire can help to maintain grassland habitat over time. However, this species is widely considered to be fire intolerant; even dormant-season fire can cause mortality because larvae spend the majority of their time on grasses. Burning small portions of occupied habitat each year and increasing the time between burns to a minimum of 5 years can help minimize negative population-level effects. Pesticides used to control moths (Limantria dispar) may affect this species in open woodlands where both occur. Roadside management recommendations: Frequent mowing can reduce floral resources; therefore, reduce mowing frequency beyond the clear zone in areas where this species occurs. Using a higher mower height (approximately 8 inches) may help reduce impacts on larvae and pupae; however, more information on the larval behavior of this species is needed. Avoid spraying host plants and nectar plants, especially Liatris spp. (Table 3-7) with herbicides. Increasing habitat connectivity by investing in high-quality revegetation near areas inhabited by this species will be beneficial to this species and others. Table 3-7. Plants used by the Leonard’s skipper. Species Name   Common Name  Larval Host Plants    Schizachyrium scoparium  Little bluestem  Bouteloua gracilis  Blue grama  Agrostis spp.  Bentgrass 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-25 Species Name   Common Name  Nectar Plants    Liatris aspera  Rough blazing star1  Liatris punctata  Blazing star1  Verbena spp.  Verbenas  Cirsium spp.  Thistles3  Aster spp.  Asters  Dipsacus spp.  Teasel2  1 Favored nectar source  2 Non‐native  3 This genus includes native and nonnative species; some of the nonnative species are invasive.  3.7.1 References Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 2022. Hesperia leonardus. Available: https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedEleme nt=IILEP65060. Scott, J.A., and R.E. Stanford. 1981. Geographic Variation and Ecology of Hesperia leonardus (Hesperiidae). Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 20:18–35. Spomer, S.M., L.C. Higley, T.T. Orwig, G.L. Selby, and L.J. Young. 1993. Clinal Variation in Hesperia leonardus (Hesperiidae) in the Loess Hills of the Missouri River Valley. Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 47:291–302. 3.8 Ottoe Skipper (Hesperia ottoe)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult Ottoe skipper (top left) and known state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e.,  breeding period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for this this region are shown in the chart 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-26 (bottom). Larvae spend time in aboveground shelters during “active” time listed here (see Life Cycle for  more). Photo credit: Mike Reese.    Order: Lepidoptera Family: Hesperiidae Status: Vulnerable (G3). This species is vulnerable, given that it rarely occurs away from high-quality prairie and continues to decline in abundance. Distribution: Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, Wisconsin, and Wyoming as well as southern Manitoba. This species may be extirpated from Minnesota. Where it occurs: This species occurs in high-quality grassland habitat, including mid- grass and tallgrass prairies in the Great Plains and dry prairies and barrens in the Great Lakes regions. How to recognize: One of the larger grass skippers, Ottoe skipper is pale yellow underneath but has more striking coloration on the upper surfaces. Males have wide brown borders on the forewings; females have wide brown borders and a glassy spot in the middle of the forewing. Life cycle: The species has a single brood per year, with adults flying between late June and early August. Eggs are laid singly on grasses such as little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) but occasionally on forbs such as coneflowers (Echinacea spp.). Larvae construct aboveground shelters from grasses where they feed through late summer during the first three instars. They overwinter as larvae in new subterranean shelters constructed at the base of grasses. In the spring, they construct shelters from silk and other debris on the soil surface where they complete feeding and then pupate. Habitat needs: The species requires prairies with native prairie grasses and an abundance of native nectar-producing forbs such as coneflowers (Echinacea spp.) and milkweeds (Asclepias spp.). Top reasons for decline, if known: Reasons for decline include habitat loss (e.g., from the conversion of rangeland to row-crop agriculture) and inadequate rangeland management (e.g., inappropriate grazing, mowing, and fire regimes). General conservation recommendations: Conserve large expanses of native rangeland. Manage rangeland to ensure an abundance of nectar sources and prevent tree encroachment. Proper management of rangeland with regard to this species is poorly understood; therefore, managing heterogeneously seems to be very important (i.e., avoid large-scale burning or mowing that might harm an entire population). Maintain abundant nectar sources. Roadside management recommendations: Roadsides alone are unlikely to provide large enough patches of habitat for this species. However, well-managed roadsides can help sustain populations that also inhabit adjacent rangelands and increase habitat connectivity. This species is most likely highly mobile; therefore, increased habitat connectivity may be especially beneficial. Mowing can help maintain Ottoe skipper habitat

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-27 by reducing woody plant invasion. However, mowing in late summer is likely to kill larvae that are sheltering aboveground in grasses. Therefore, if possible, roadside mowing should be delayed until after grasses have senesced in the fall. Use a high mowing height of approximately 8 inches when mowing in Ottoe skipper habitat while larvae are active. This species needs abundant nectar sources (Table 3-8). Avoid spraying important nectar plants with herbicides. Table 3-8. Plants used by the Ottoe skipper. Species Name   Common Name  Larval Host Plants    Bouteloua gracilis  Blue grama  Andropogon gerardii  Big bluestem  Schizachyrium scoparium  Little bluestem  Bouteloua curtipendula  Sideoats grama  Bouteloua hirsuta  Hairy grama  Digitaria cognata  Fall witchgrass  Panicum wilcoxianum  Fall rosette grass  Sporobolus neglectus  Puffsheath dropseed  Nectar Plants    Liatris spp.  Blazing stars  Asclepias syriaca  Common milkweed  Asclepias viridiflora  Green comet milkweed  Silphium laciniatum  Compass plant  Echinacea angustifolia  Narrow‐leaved coneflower  Verbena stricta  Hoary verbena  Cirsium flodmanii  Flodman’s thistle 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-28 3.8.1 References Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 2022. Hesperia ottoe. Available: https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedEleme nt=IILEP65050. NatureServe. 2020. NatureServe Explorer [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available: https://explorer.natureserve.org/. Accessed: September 9, 2020. Robinson, G. S., P. R. Ackery, I. J. Kitching, G. W. Beccaloni, and L. M. Hernández. 2010. Hosts – A Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants. Natural History Museum, London. Available: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosts. Accessed: 9 Sept. 2020 3.9 Rattlesnake‐Master Borer Moth (Papaipema eryngii)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Rattlesnake‐master plant (top left) and known distribution of the rattlesnake‐master borer moth (top  right). Adult flight times (i.e., breeding period; blue) and period when the larvae are in the upper part of  the plant (green) are shown for this region (bottom). See Life Cycle for more information. Photo credit: Eric  Hunt ‐ Own work, CC BY‐SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=91919813. Map  Source: ecos.fws.gov, accessed March 2022.  Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae Status: Critically to imperiled (G1G2). This species was a candidate for ESA listing but was not listed. Distribution: Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Oklahoma. Where it occurs: This species uses undisturbed prairie remnants but has also been found in savanna, woodland openings, and barrens where the host plant (Eryngium yuccifolium) is found. How to recognize: Adults are 1.4 to 1.9 inches long. Wings are purplish-brown with yellow or white spots. As adults mature, the wing color may become lighter but the spots remain.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-29 Life cycle: Adults can be observed from mid-September through the end of October. Females lay eggs on rattlesnake-master (Eryngium yuccifolium) plants. Eggs overwinter on the host plant and hatch in May in southern populations or June in northern populations. Larvae burrow into the plant and feed on plant tissues. The larvae make their way to the root crown where they stay until pupation. Adults appear to be relatively sedentary. Habitat needs: This species needs habitat with an abundance of rattlesnake-master plants. It also requires an absence of dormant-season fires that burn the whole habitat. Top reasons for decline, if known: Reasons for decline include habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. Overcollection by collectors may also pose a risk if large numbers of larvae are collected from a population. General conservation recommendations: If fire is used to manage habitat, restrict burning to 25 percent of the habitat in a given year and let burned areas rest 3 to 4 years before burning again. More research is needed regarding management effects on this species. In general, protecting habitat and improving habitat connectivity among occupied habitat patches should be beneficial. Roadside management recommendations: Populations have been found along roadsides in Missouri and Arkansas. Mowing could have negative impacts by killing larvae or removing egg-laying sites. Setting a mower height to 6 to 8 inches and mowing habitat with rattlesnake- master (E. yuccifolium) in winter should minimize negative effects on the moth. From May through July, larvae will be in the upper part of the plant; therefore, avoid mowing rattlesnake-master plants at that time. Avoid using herbicides on rattlesnake-master plants in this species’ range. 3.9.1 References NatureServe. 2020. NatureServe Explorer [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available: https://explorer.natureserve.org/. Accessed: November 9, 2020. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Species Assessment and Listing Priority Assignment Form: Rattlesnake-master Borer Moth (Papaipema eryngii). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2020. Species Status Assessment Report for the Rattlesnake-master Borer Moth (Papaipema eryngii). Version 1.1.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-30 3.10 Regal Fritillary (Speyeria idalia)    Jan  Feb  Mar  April  May  June  July  Aug  Sept  Oct  Nov  Dec  Adult                                                                                                Larvae                                                                                                Adult regal fritillary (top left) and known state‐level distribution (top right). Adult flight times (i.e., breeding  period; blue) and larvae active periods (green) for this this region are shown in the chart (bottom). See Life  Cycle for more. Photo credit: Ray Moranz. Map Source: ecos.fws.gov, accessed March 2022.    Order: Lepidoptera Family: Nymphalidae Status: Vulnerable (G3?). This species has been petitioned for listing under the ESA. Distribution: Historically, from the Northern Plains (including Manitoba) to Maine as well as Oklahoma to North Carolina. It is thought to have been extirpated from 15 states, primarily in the East. It is known to still occur in Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Where it occurs: The species occurs mainly in prairies in the Central Grasslands but also in grasslands at Fort Indiantown Gap in Pennsylvania and the Radford Army Ammunition Plant in Virginia. How to recognize: This species is a large butterfly with bold, distinctive color patterns; it flies with a rapid wingbeat. The upper sides of the forewings are orange; the upper sides of the hindwings are dark purple, with rows of orange and white spots (male) or white spots only (female). The under sides of the forewings are orange with black spots; the under sides of the hind wings have large, bright white spots that contrast with the hazy copper background. Life cycle: This is a univoltine species (i.e., a single generation per year). In the Midwest, adult males emerge from chrysalids in late May or early June, with females emerging two weeks later. The females mate, then, after mating, are relatively inactive in July and August. Each one lays thousands of eggs, one at a time, near grassland violets (their host plants) in September and October. Most males are dead by mid-July. Larvae burrow under litter to hibernate for the winter soon after hatching. Around April, larvae become active and begin feeding on violets until pupation.

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-31 Habitat needs: The species prefers grasslands with violets and high-quality nectar sources (Asclepias, Echinacea, Liatris, Monarda, Verbena, etc.). The minimum habitat patch size is unknown, but 20 acres is probably too small for maintaining a local population over the long term. Disturbance (i.e., fire, mowing) is often needed to counter woody plant encroachment; however, burning or mowing should be conducted on only one-third of the site or less each year to minimize any chance of extirpating the population. Top reasons for decline, if known: Reasons for decline include habitat loss (e.g., conversion of habitat to row-crop agriculture, improved pastureland, and urban/suburban development). Other reasons include encroachment by woody plants and invasive exotics that reduce habitat quality. General conservation recommendations: Restore habitat by restoring diverse, native prairie with violets and nectar sources. Manage habitat with fire, haying, or mowing to maintain native forb populations and prevent woody plant encroachment. Avoid use of insecticides and broadcast spraying of broad-spectrum herbicides in and near habitat. Persistence of this species will very likely depend on having large, connected habitat available throughout its range. Work to increase availability of violets for use in restoration efforts. Roadside management recommendations: Roadside mowing could kill some regal fritillary immatures (eggs, larvae and pupae); therefore, reducing mowing frequency beyond the clear zone or leaving some areas unmowed in regal fritillary habitat could be beneficial. Infrequent mowing will also help maintain habitat by preventing woody plant encroachment and allowing light to reach low-growing violets. Spot spraying of herbicides to kill woody plants and invasive herbaceous species will also help maintain habitat, although the direct effects of herbicides on the butterfly remain unknown. Care should be taken to avoid spraying violets and important nectar plants with herbicides. Use violets (Table 3-9) in pollinator habitat created in regal fritillary habitat. Because this species lays eggs on plants other than the host plant, survival will be diminished if they lay many eggs in habitat that lacks host plants. Table 3-9. Plants used by the Regal fritillary. Species name   Common name  Larval host plants    Viola bicolor  Field pansy  Viola pedata  Birdfoot violet  Viola pedatifida  Prairie violet  Viola sagittata  Arrowleaf violet  Viola sororia  Common blue violet 

Chapter 3. Imperiled Pollinator Profiles  3-32 Species name   Common name  Nectar plants    Asclepias purpurascens  Purple milkweed  Asclepias sullivantiiD  Prairie milkweed  Asclepias syriaca  Common milkweed  Asclepias tuberosa  Butterfly milkweed  Cephalanthus occidentalis  Buttonbush  Cirsium spp.  Thistles1  Echinacea pallida  Pale purple coneflower  Echinacea purpurea  Purple coneflower  Liatris pycnostachya  Prairie blazing star  Monarda fistulosa  Wild bergamot  Pycnanthemum tenuifolium  Slender mountain mint  1 This genus includes native and nonnative species; some of the nonnative species are invasive.  3.10.1 References NatureServe. 2020. NatureServe Explorer [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, VA. Available: https://explorer.natureserve.org/. Accessed: August 19, 2020. Robinson, G. S., P. R. Ackery, I. J. Kitching, G. W. Beccaloni, and L. M. Hernández. 2010. Hosts – A Database of the World's Lepidopteran Host Plants. Natural History Museum, London. Available: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosts. Accessed: August 18, 2010. Selby, G. 2007. Regal Fritillary (Speyeria idalia Drury): A Technical Conservation Assessment. Online. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region. February 9. Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/projects/scp/assessments/regalfritillary.pdf [2020-08-17].