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Overview of Success: Bodies of Knowledge and Existing Toolkits
The workshop’s first panel was moderated by Susan Clayton, Planning Committee Member and Professor of Psychology at The College of Wooster, who provided an overview of the successes achieved in the field of human sciences. The first panelist, Stephen H. Linder, Planning Committee Member and Professor in the Department of Management, Policy and Community Health in the School of Public Health at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, focused on what is known about promoting resilience, from the human science perspective. Linder also serves as Director of the Institute for Health Policy, and Co-Director of Community Engagement for the Gulf Coast Center for Precision Environmental Research. The second panelist, Jessica Murphy, a Professor of Technology in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering & Industrial Systems and Technology at Jackson State University (JSU), reviewed methods that are currently working to promote resilience. One of the most significant developments highlighted by both panelists was the increased recognition of the importance of human sciences in addressing environmental challenges. The panelists also emphasized the potential of human sciences to be inclusive and attentive to justice-related issues, enabling equitable and effective solutions.
INTRODUCING THE CHALLENGES AND IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRATING HUMAN SCIENCES WITH COLLECTIVE RESPONSE
Linder highlighted challenges regarding integrating human sciences to inform responses to environmental change, and emphasized that, to encourage action, an interface between human sciences and knowledge translation and exchange is necessary. He discussed the various levels of analysis in the human sciences that engage with resilience and how these levels can broaden the knowledge spectrum of front-line organizations—noting that a broader knowledge base fosters adaptation and resilience. Linder also pointed out that each human sciences discipline offers a distinct perspective on human action. Specifically, he drew on the example of psychology, which focuses on individual agents that have internal constraints on their behavior. In contrast, the field of economics considers external constraints, particularly financial incentives, and examines how individuals and communities respond to those constraints. Economics also explores ways to modify incentives to promote social adaptability within the community. Linder emphasized that these distinct human sciences perspectives are uniquely useful.
When considering the processes that collectively give rise to social capital, Linder stated that group-level processes are an avenue for creating resilience. Linder conveyed that the ability to mobilize groups is influential, and this social support brings about capital:
As we move up a level of analysis and think not about individual agents but rather as more collective forms that give rise to the social capital that Gary Belkin mentioned, you’re then looking at group-level processes that are distinct from the earlier focus on internal constraints of the individual or external constraints to the individual action. And these group-level processes are generally viewed as the avenue through which resiliency can actually be created, and it’s not a matter of empowering particular individuals. It’s really about mobilization and your ability to mobilize groups.
Linder provided examples from group-level analyses showing how resilience can build within and across communities without a social infrastructure in place. He expressed that, from a macrolevel perspective, social structures and their determinants are key factors that can contribute to various societal challenges, including differential disease burdens, difficulties in forming social groupings, and the presence of injustice. To create a holistic perspective on the concept of resilience, it is necessary to integrate across diverse levels of analysis. Linder suggested that these challenges can be overcome not only through conversations such as those taking place during this workshop but also by recognizing the need for the integration of distinct disciplines based on their unique characteristics. He emphasized that adopting such strategies promotes cooperative advancement through support of citizen-led action and a focus on knowledge translation.
Clayton thanked Linder and offered a reminder relating to the diverse perspectives and analytic approaches in the human sciences, namely that it is crucial to consider integration among scientists across scales. Distinct types of analyses can result in varied definitions because the human sciences are siloed between disciplines.
Clayton turned her attention to a question from a participant about the meaning of scale and the terms micro-, meso-, and macrolevels. In response, Linder discussed a current debate in the social sciences relating to a research tactic called methodological individualism. This approach, to which some disciplines strictly adhere, posits that all social action must originate with individual action. In contrast, other disciplines consider a plausible account for individual action and focus on group-level processes that build resilience. Linder specified that this distinction extends upward to the macrolevel, where researchers focus on “how one does empirical research.” Each discipline takes a unique position within the hierarchy, based on the particular set of ontological assumptions that precede researchers’ specific training and guide their work. Thus, such assumptions become a part of the frame that goes unquestioned. Clayton and Linder acknowledged that, when combining disciplines, questions arise regarding discipline-based assumptions as well as the appropriate level of analysis. They identified scale as a key factor in determining generalizability.
DISASTER RESPONSE PREPAREDNESS AND COLLECTIVE COMMUNITY RESILIENCE
Clayton introduced Murphy, an expert in promoting resilience and community preparedness who, in 2011, made significant contributions to the establishment of the Emergency Management Technology program at JSU.1 Murphy spoke about building community resilience through an interdisciplinary approach that looks at technology, forecasting, and community development.
Murphy introduced the Emergency Management Community Resilience Project at JSU, the key objective of which is to build resilience by preparing underserved communities in Mississippi for natural disasters, to minimize loss of life and property.2 To achieve this objective, she noted that education and training are necessary, especially for the next generation of emergency scientists.3 Murphy stated her belief in building a knowledge pipeline that starts at early academic levels, by teaching students about emergency management and familiarizing them with relevant related professions and potential educational avenues. A core interdisciplinary team is necessary to achieve this educational goal. She went on to reference her own team, which includes, among others, a computer scientist, a meteorologist, a communication specialist, and a health policy manager.
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1 More information about the Emergency Management Technology program is available at https://www.jsums.edu/new-jsuonline/technology-b-s-cement-technology/
2 More information about the Community Resilience Project is available at https://www.jsums.edu/communityresilience/
3 Emergency scientists specialize in studying and responding to emergencies or disasters and include disciplines such as emergency management, disaster response, and risk assessment.
Murphy emphasized that disasters are disruptions that bring negative impacts and typically require rapid assistance. Weather events, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, are predictable, while other disasters are not. Depending on intensity, some disasters can be managed locally, while others cause community-wide disruption. She pointed out that, in many instances, local capacity can be overwhelmed, necessitating outside help. She noted that, unfortunately, many people do not understand the difference between a “watch,” in which conditions are favorable for a natural disaster, and a “warning,” in which disaster conditions are imminent. As disasters become more regional in magnitude, they may compromise infrastructure and hinder the provision of physical and monetary assistance. She provided a distinction between natural (i.e., atmospheric) disasters and man-made disasters (e.g., those tied to terrorism, violence, and epidemics or pandemics). Each type of disaster requires unique aspects of preparedness.
The state of Mississippi experiences a wide variety of weather events that sometimes co-occur, such as tornadoes and hurricanes. Murphy advocates for educating communities by working, as she has, with partners such as the National Weather Service (NWS),4 Mississippi Emergency Management Agency,5 and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. She also referenced The University of Alabama’s Center for Advanced Public Safety (CAPS)6 as an example partner in the public safety realm, and she underscored the importance of fostering collaborations among diverse entities to enhance capacity-building efforts. Additionally, Murphy highlighted three steps promoted by Ready.Gov and Red Cross: get and stay informed, make a plan, and make a kit. An emergency-preparedness kit, or “go bag,” should contain essential items for household members and pets or service animals, including masks, prescriptions, family documents, cash, and a change of clothes.7 Further preparedness-related plans would entail creating a support network and stocking up on necessities such as water and nonperishable food, personal hygiene supplies, flashlights, extra batteries, first aid kit, battery-powered or hand-crank radio, cell phone with chargers, and local maps. Murphy conveyed that, overall, it is essential to respond to information from the NWS or other sources (acquired through apps and/or telephone services) by taking safety precautions, sheltering in place, or evacuating if necessary. Murphy also encouraged communities to assist the elderly by communicating the need to prepare in advance for impending disasters.
In summary, Murphy expressed her belief that bringing communities together to respond to disasters requires not only the participation of specialists but also student partnerships. She referenced the disaster resiliency space in the Advanced Disaster Management Simulations Lab, which is crucial for bridging the gap between classroom training and live exercises. The Lab educates and prepares participants by heightening critical thinking, improving response times, and thereby minimizing loss of life and property.
PANEL DISCUSSION
After the panelists shared their presentations, they engaged in a discussion on disaster management as well as the issue of defining and differentiating between natural and human-made disasters. Clayton emphasized the criticality of addressing fundamental definitional issues related to disasters, including the significance of classifying them as natural or human-caused. By highlighting the definitional aspect, Clayton underscored the need to establish clear parameters and criteria for identifying and understanding disasters because such definitions could influence the resulting responses. Clayton provided her definition of a disaster as anything that negatively impacts
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4 The mission of the NWS is to “provide weather, water and climate data, forecasts, warnings, and impact-based decision support services for the protection of life and property and enhancement of the national economy.” More information about the NWS is available at https://www.weather.gov/about/
5 The Mississippi Emergency Management Agency’s mission is to “safeguard Mississippi and its citizens by fostering a culture of preparedness, executing timely responses during disasters, and quickly restoring quality of life post-event. Emergency Management is a comprehensive approach for administering and governing mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.” More information about the Mississippi Emergency Management Agency is available at https://www.msema.org/about/
6 CAPS is “an interdisciplinary research center at The University of Alabama dedicated to the implementation and utilization of cutting-edge technologies to enhance the public safety and well-being of the citizens of our state, nation and world.” More information about CAPS is available at https://www.caps.ua.edu/
7 More information about building and maintaining a disaster supply kit is available at https://www.ready.gov/kit
an individual or community and requires immediate assistance. Murphy cited Charles E. Fritz’s definition of a disaster as an event that breaks a local community’s ability to respond to an event when help is drawn upon from outside the community8 and offered her previously stated definition, drawing attention to the “negative impact on an individual or a community” that often requires immediate assistance.
Murphy emphasized the importance of acknowledging the impact of disasters on individuals without becoming excessively consumed by definitions. Instead, she stressed the need to recognize the disruptions caused by disasters as the basis for informing responses, fostering resilience, and establishing a “new normal.” Broadly speaking, she said, a natural disaster is typically defined as a weather or atmospheric event such as a flood, storm, or blizzard; human-made disasters are caused by malicious acts such as terrorism.
Linder shared his experience with Gulf Coast petrochemical disasters, which turned the discussion toward issues and complications resulting from a combination of human and natural disasters. He provided an example of federal service responses in which emergency medical services are responsible for coordinating disaster aid by warning and evacuating residents and mobilizing assistance from local governments. He suggested that various entities—such as the Coast Guard, county officials, local groups, the NWS, investigators, and public health agencies—have been and can in the future be involved in these responses. Murphy also recognized that different definitions of emergency-related terms may be used by other organizations, such as insurance companies responding to disaster claims. The panelists agreed that, when speaking about a disaster, the focus should be less on defining specific complications than on building resilience by promoting response and recovery efforts that prioritize assisting affected communities. In addition to confronting disaster impacts and the resulting societal disruption, response and recovery operations should also focus on facilitating learning, to establish the “new normal.”
A participant raised the following question during the subsequent discussion: What does it mean to be an expert in disaster response? Murphy explained that being an expert does not necessarily mean knowing everything but rather having a “heightened sense of competency” in a respective area. She noted that, to become an expert, one should collaborate with diverse partners to capitalize on formal and informal opportunities to gain experience, learn new policies, and retrieve new information. The discussion subsequently shifted toward the training of professionals who play a pivotal role in emergency and disaster preparedness. Murphy acknowledged that specific training requirements may vary depending on the area of focus, such as finance, first response, academia, or training itself. The panelists highlighted the importance of establishing partnerships and promoting engagement among partners before disasters strike. They emphasized that activities such as convening subject matter experts, serving on advisory boards, pursuing and completing training opportunities, and engaging with communities before a disaster occurs are all vital to building and connecting to established networks.
Similarly, in response to a question on minimizing incorrect information, the panelists agreed that a key to success involves building knowledge partnerships prior to a disaster. This could involve building a network of trusted experts and information prior to disasters rather than operating “on the fly,” Clayton pointed out. Establishing a framework that delineates responsibilities and provides background via online training would also be helpful, noted Clayton. Panelists also discussed the issue of self-proclaimed “experts” who have unverified reference sources. Murphy suggested minimizing this issue by building networks of known subject matter experts and promoting critical thinking amongst those individuals. Linder added that public information offices should consolidate and control information ahead of a disaster, to avoid misinformation and rumors often disseminated on social media platforms. In conclusion, the panelists agreed that building networks and partnerships prior to disasters and engaging in critical thinking with those experts are key to promoting effective disaster responses.
Regarding partnerships in the context of disaster management, the panelists provided tips and strategies designed to increase the productivity of partnerships and to help people avoid potential collaboration traps. Linder underscored the significance of fostering instrumental partnerships and emphasized the value of connecting with local agencies and officials through various channels, to enhance engagement and leverage existing structures. In stressing the importance of developing strategic partnerships, Linder highlighted the need to establish collaborative relationships that bring together resources, expertise, and shared goals to effectively address complex challenges. Both Linder and Murphy alluded to the importance of volunteering as part of active team membership. To assess
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8 Fritz, C. E. (1961). Disaster. In R. K. Merton & R. A. Nisbet (Eds.), Contemporary social problems (pp. 651–694). Harcourt, Brace and World.
the actors required to meet specific goals, Murphy stressed the need to clearly define the scope and focus of a partnership. For example, if the focus is on weather, the NWS may be a key player in identifying research that can help the public understand weather patterns. Both panelists highlighted the importance of building trustworthy networks to address “fake news.” They further acknowledged the need for heightened cybersecurity in the context of disseminating information regarding man-made disasters.
In response to a question on how to address the problems faced by socio-economically disadvantaged people during a disaster, Murphy suggested providing temporarily unhoused individuals with “go-bags” containing essentials, which some shelters may already provide. She also recommended tapping into available sources of essentials including community outreach programs, faith-based organizations, and insurance companies. Linder pointed out that the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has recommended that local health departments use the Social Vulnerability Index9 to prioritize vulnerable communities that most need resources and mobilization efforts. Local and social service agencies, for-profit and nonprofit organizations, anchor institutions, and other groups should be contacted and mobilized in times of emergency—all of which would require advanced planning.
Clayton emphasized the importance of keeping the broader social context in mind when responding to disasters. For example, insurance companies could donate supplies to a community’s repository of weather provisions, set up workshops, and provide technical assistance—all actions that may help build community resilience and awareness. Overall, effective partnerships and preparedness efforts require clear goals, diverse networks, and proactive planning to address the socio-economic impacts of disasters.
In a discussion about scaling up emergency responses to deal with the increasing frequency of hurricanes hitting multiple cities, the group considered the role of diverse disciplines and the importance of local knowledge. Murphy emphasized the need to assemble multidisciplinary teams to address specific issues, while also considering the scale of the problem (i.e., whether it is a state or local issue). Linder highlighted the critical role of human sciences and knowledge exchange and then went on to stress the importance of political will and investment at local, state, and federal levels to mobilize social transformation:
There is this large issue of governance and the extent to which change in governance matters for societal priorities. And the question of transformation often comes down to political will, it seems to me, and the ability then to mobilize across communities, across states, [and] across the dividing partisan lines to be able to make a transformative kind of investment for future generations.
Clayton emphasized the importance of local knowledge and lived experience (e.g., cultural, economic, and provisional services) to properly understand communities’ true needs and values. The panelists agreed that bringing in local knowledge can help inform and expand broader academic knowledge and enhance community willingness to act at various scales.
Finally, Clayton asked each of the panelists to provide the audience with a piece of takeaway advice. Murphy suggested taking a grassroots approach to research and learning while simultaneously integrating oneself deeply into the needs of the community. As an academic, she emphasized the importance of assembling a research team and using the team’s findings to address resilience issues. She suggested the need to identify usable steps in respective areas, to better equip teams to hold citizens accountable for themselves and their communities. Linder noted the importance of integrating human sciences and emphasized the need to actively engage with community-based organizations and the public through strategies that offer practical benefits to individuals. Clayton thanked the panelists for addressing the underlying conceptual questions regarding disaster response and recovery.
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9 “Social vulnerability refers to the potential negative effects on communities caused by external stresses on human health. Such stresses include natural or human-caused disasters or disease outbreaks. Reducing social vulnerability can decrease both human suffering and economic loss. The CDC/Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Social Vulnerability Index (ATSDR SVI) uses 16 U.S. Census variables to help local officials identify communities that may need support before, during, or after disasters.” More information about the CDC/ATSDR SVI is available at https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/svi/index.html
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