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BTSCRP Web-Only Document 6 Communicating Safe Behavior Practices to Vulnerable Road Users Justin Owens Tammy Trimble Erem Memisyazici Virginia Tech Transportation Institute Blacksburg, VA Christopher LaRose Neha Trivedi Victoria Hallman NORC at the University of Chicago Bethesda, MD Sanda PeÄina Storyteller Strategic Communication Taos, NM Conduct of Research Report for BTSCRP Project BTS-13 Submitted August 2023 © 2023 by the National Academy of Sciences. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and the graphical logo are trademarks of the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was sponsored by the Governors Highway Safety Association (GHSA) and funded by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). It was conducted through the Behavioral Traffic Safety Cooperative Research Program (BTSCRP), which is administered by the Transportation Research Board (TRB), part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Authors herein are responsible for the authenticity of their materials and for obtaining written permissions from publishers or persons who own the copyright to any previously published or copyrighted material used herein. Cooperative Research Programs (CRP) grants permission to reproduce material in this publication for classroom and not-for-profit purposes. Permission is given with the understanding that none of the material will be used to imply TRB, AASHTO, APTA, FAA, FHWA, FTA, GHSA, or NHTSA endorsement of a particular product, method, or practice. It is expected that those reproducing the material in this document for educational and not-for-profit uses will give appropriate acknowledgment of the source of any reprinted or reproduced material. For other uses of the material, request permission from CRP. DISCLAIMER The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied in this report are those of the researchers who performed the research. They are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board; the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; or the program sponsors. The Transportation Research Board does not develop, issue, or publish standards or specifications. The Transportation Research Board manages applied research projects which provide the scientific foundation that may be used by Transportation Research Board sponsors, industry associations, or other organizations as the basis for revised practices, procedures, or specifications. The Transportation Research Board, the National Academies, and the sponsors of the Behavioral Traffic Safety Cooperative Research Program do not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturersâ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of the report. The information contained in this document was taken directly from the submission of the author(s). This material has not been edited by TRB.
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COOPERATI VE RESEAR CH PROGRAMS CRP STAFF FOR BTSCRP WEB-ONLY DOCUMENT 6 Waseem Dekelbab, Deputy Director, Cooperative Research Programs Richard Retting, Senior Program Officer Dajaih Bias-Johnson, Senior Program Assistant Natalie Barnes, Director of Publications Heather DiAngelis, Associate Director of Publications Jennifer J. Weeks, Publishing Projects Manager BTSCRP PROJECT BTS-13 PANEL Eric Glick, Carson City, NV (Chair) Felipe Aros-Vera, Ohio University, Athens, OH Sheila D. Cozzie, Montana Department of Transportation, Helena, MT Jason Everett Jackman, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL Richard Klepner, Delaware Office of Highway Safety, Dover, DE Subhro Mitra, University of North Texas, Dallas, TX Saleh Ragab Mousa, ARPA-E / DOE, Austin, TX Bernadette Estioko Phelan, Phelan International LLC, Scottsdale, AZ Panos D. Prevedouros, University of Hawaii, Reno, NV Kathryn Wochinger, NHTSA Liaison AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research reported herein was performed under BTSCRP Project 13 by the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI) with support from NORC at the University of Chicago. Dr. Justin Owens, Research Scientist within the Division of Vehicle, Driver & System Safety, was the Project Director and Principal Investigator. The other VTTI authors of this report are Dr. Tammy Trimble, Co-Principal Investigator and Research Scientist, Division of Data and Analytics; and Mr. Erem Memisyazici, Senior Research Specialist, Division of Vehicle, Driver & System Safety. The NORC researchers include Dr. Christopher La Rose, Senior Research Scientist, Public Health and Dr. Neha Trivedi, Research Scientist.
FOREWORD By Richard Retting Staff Officer Transportation Research Board BTSCRP Web-Only Document 6: Communicating Safe Behavior Practices to Vulnerable Road Users presents a toolkit to help traffic safety practitioners communicate safe behavior practices to vulnerable road users (VRUs). To develop this toolkit, the research team collected and analyzed relevant data, developed effectiveness measures and evaluation methods, and conducted a workshop to obtain practitioner feedback. This publication will be of interest to state highway safety offices and other stakeholders concerned with communicating safe behavior practices to VRUs. Vulnerable road users (VRUs) include pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists, all of whom lack the basic safety protections provided to vehicle occupants by automobiles. Many attempts have been made to improve VRU safety via behavioral outreach, policy, and technological change; nevertheless, fatality rates for VRUs remain unacceptably high. To meaningfully improve roadway safety for VRUs, it is important to understand the safety problems and domains with the highest potential for improvement based on the factors that contribute to crashes and the factors that can be mitigated by behavioral changes. In this project, the research team identified and prioritized the causes of high-risk VRU behaviors and developed effective outreach strategies designed to alter these behaviors, with the ultimate goal of improving roadway safety for pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists. In BTSCRP Project BTS-13, âCommunicating Safe Behavior Practices to Vulnerable Road Users,â Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University was asked to develop a toolkit for practitioners implementing communication strategies focused on safety for VRUs. The research team (1) identified and prioritized root causes of high-risk behaviors for VRUs; (2) summarized existing communication channels and messaging platforms, their ability to target specific groups, and their costs; (3) collected examples of successful and unsuccessful behavioral change messages and communications channels, both nationally and internationally; (4) developed behavioral and communication strategies to mitigate risks for each VRU group and their subgroups; (5) developed effectiveness measures and assessments as well as evaluation methods for outreach strategies designed to alter behaviors in each VRU group; (6) conducted a workshop to obtain practitioner feedback; and (7) developed a toolkit and associated final deliverables to help practitioners communicate safe behavior practices to VRUs. The toolkit presentation slides, along with Appendices C, F, and G, are available on the National Academies Press website (nap.nationalacademies.org) by searching for BTSCRP Web-Only Document 6: Communicating Safe Behavior Practices to Vulnerable Road Users.
Table of Contents SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................. 1 Project Objectives ..............................................................................................................................1 Project Approach ...............................................................................................................................1 Issues Affecting Potential Implementation..........................................................................................2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 5 Project Objectives ..............................................................................................................................5 Research Approach ............................................................................................................................6 CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 7 Introduction to Behavior Change Theory ............................................................................................7 Fundamental Theories of Behavior Change .........................................................................................8 Behavior Change Theory Summary Table ................................................................................................ 9 Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) ........................................................................................................... 11 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) .......................................................................................................... 11 Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) ................................................................................................................. 11 Transtheoretical/Stages of Change Model (SCM) .................................................................................. 11 Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction (IMBP) ............................................................................... 12 Value-Belief-Norm Theory (VBN)............................................................................................................ 12 Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) ..................................................................................................... 13 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) ...................................................................................................... 13 Health Belief Model (HBM)..................................................................................................................... 13 Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) ..................................................................................................... 14 Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) .............................................................................................. 14 Translational Frameworks: From Public Health to Roadway Safety ....................................................14 Knowledge to Action Framework (K2A) ................................................................................................. 15 Persuasive Health Message Framework (PHM) ..................................................................................... 15 Agenda Setting Theory (AST) .................................................................................................................. 16 Ward Model ............................................................................................................................................ 16 Traffic Safety Culture .......................................................................................................................17 Age and Experience ................................................................................................................................ 17 Gender .................................................................................................................................................... 18 Education Level....................................................................................................................................... 18 Geography .............................................................................................................................................. 18 Religion ................................................................................................................................................... 19 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 20
Considerations for Effective Behavior Change Campaigns..................................................................20 Target Behavior Selection....................................................................................................................... 20 Motivation and Intention ....................................................................................................................... 20 Self-Efficacy and Control......................................................................................................................... 21 Message Development: Framing and Modality ..................................................................................... 21 Memorability .......................................................................................................................................... 22 Check-Ins................................................................................................................................................. 22 Unintended Consequences..................................................................................................................... 22 Data Availability/Quality and Campaign Evaluation ............................................................................... 23 Example Behavioral Change Messages and Communications Channels ..............................................24 Methods.................................................................................................................................................. 25 Findings ................................................................................................................................................... 29 Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 32 CHAPTER 3 DEVELOPMENT OF SAFETY-CRITICAL SCENARIOS .......................................... 33 VRU Population Safety Risk Report ...................................................................................................33 Pedestrians ............................................................................................................................................. 33 Bicyclists.................................................................................................................................................. 34 Motorcyclists .......................................................................................................................................... 35 Summary of Interaction Effects ........................................................................................................36 Pedestrian Interaction Effects ................................................................................................................ 36 Bicyclist Interaction Effects..................................................................................................................... 37 Motorcycle Interaction Effects ............................................................................................................... 37 Matrix of Risk Probabilities ..............................................................................................................37 Identification of Significant Differences that Influence Behaviors for Each VRU Group and Subgroup . 38 Scenario 1: Pedestrians Entering the Roadway at Night ........................................................................ 39 Scenario 2: Pedestrians Becoming Alcohol-impaired Before Walking ................................................... 39 Scenario 3: Bicyclists Ages 46â65 Riding in Urban Environments .......................................................... 40 Scenario 4: Motorcycles Riding Under the Influence of Alcohol ............................................................ 41 CHAPTER 4 TOOLKIT OF OUTREACH STRATEGIES FOR ALTERING UNSAFE BEHAVIOR ....................................................................................................... 42 Component 1. Behavioral and Communication Strategies to Mitigate Risks .......................................42 Component 2. Communication Channels and Messaging Platforms ...................................................42 Methods.................................................................................................................................................. 43 Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 46 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTED RESEARCH ...................................................... 48 Conclusions .....................................................................................................................................48
Suggested Research .........................................................................................................................48 Dissemination of Research Results ...................................................................................................48 Issues Affecting Potential Implementation........................................................................................49 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................... 52 APPENDIX A SUMMARY OF IDENTIFIED OUTREACH CAMPAIGNS ..................................... 75 Driving-related Campaigns ...............................................................................................................75 Pedestrian Safety .................................................................................................................................... 75 Bicyclist Safety ........................................................................................................................................ 75 Active Transportation Safety .................................................................................................................. 76 Seat Belt Education................................................................................................................................. 77 Speeding ................................................................................................................................................. 78 Impaired Driving ..................................................................................................................................... 78 Non-driving Campaigns ....................................................................................................................80 Smoking Cessation .................................................................................................................................. 80 Other Drug-related Campaigns............................................................................................................... 80 Medical Screenings ................................................................................................................................. 81 Firearm Safety......................................................................................................................................... 82 APPENDIX B EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL BEHAVIORAL CHANGE CAMPAIGNS ........................................................................................................................................... 95 Pedestrian Communication and Education Campaigns ......................................................................95 Effective Pedestrian-related Campaigns ................................................................................................ 95 Promising Pedestrian-related Campaigns .............................................................................................. 99 Bicyclists Communication and Education Campaigns ....................................................................... 105 Effective Bicyclists Campaigns .............................................................................................................. 105 Pedestrian and Bicyclists Communication and Education Campaigns ............................................... 108 Effective Pedestrian- and Bicyclists-related Campaigns ....................................................................... 108 Promising Pedestrian- and Bicyclists-related Campaigns ..................................................................... 112 Motorcyclists Communication and Education Campaigns ................................................................ 118 Effective Motorcycle-related Campaigns ............................................................................................. 118 Promising Motorcycle-related Campaign ............................................................................................. 121 APPENDIX D VRU GROUP SELECTION ....................................................................................... 124 Pedestrians .................................................................................................................................... 124 Bicyclists ........................................................................................................................................ 124
Motorcyclists ................................................................................................................................. 124 Personal Devices ............................................................................................................................ 125 Categorization Variable Selection ................................................................................................... 125 Demographic Characteristics ................................................................................................................ 126 Impairment ........................................................................................................................................... 126 Environmental Characteristics.............................................................................................................. 128 Street Location...................................................................................................................................... 129 Urbanicity ............................................................................................................................................. 129 Data Sources .................................................................................................................................. 129 Crash Databases ................................................................................................................................... 129 Other Sources for Context .................................................................................................................... 130 Data Limitations.................................................................................................................................... 130 Results........................................................................................................................................... 130 Yearly Counts and Trends for All VRUs (2010â2018) ........................................................................... 130 Pedestrians ........................................................................................................................................... 132 Bicyclists................................................................................................................................................ 142 Motorcyclists ........................................................................................................................................ 152 People on Personal Conveyances ......................................................................................................... 163 APPENDIX E RELEVANT REGULATIONS.................................................................................... 165 Pedestrians .................................................................................................................................... 165 Crosswalks ............................................................................................................................................ 165 Distracted Walking Laws....................................................................................................................... 165 White Cane Laws .................................................................................................................................. 165 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) .................................................................................................. 166 Bicyclists ........................................................................................................................................ 166 Road Use ............................................................................................................................................... 166 Safe Passing .......................................................................................................................................... 170 Bicycle Helmet Laws ............................................................................................................................. 170 Motorcyclists ................................................................................................................................. 171 Helmet Use ........................................................................................................................................... 171 Lane Splitting, Filtering, and Sharing .................................................................................................... 172 Additional Motorcyclist Legal Considerations ...................................................................................... 173 Lighting ......................................................................................................................................... 173 APPENDIX H ADVOCACY ORGANIZATIONS.............................................................................. 175 Pedestrian Advocacy Organizations ................................................................................................ 175 America Walks ...................................................................................................................................... 175 Feet First Philly ..................................................................................................................................... 175
WalkMassachusetts (formerly WalkBoston) ........................................................................................ 175 Bicyclist Advocacy Organizations .................................................................................................... 175 Bicycle Coalition of Greater Philadelphia ............................................................................................. 175 Bicycle Colorado ................................................................................................................................... 175 Bike Easy ............................................................................................................................................... 175 Bike Houston......................................................................................................................................... 175 Bike Pittsburgh...................................................................................................................................... 175 Bike Texas ............................................................................................................................................. 176 Iowa Bicycle Coalition ........................................................................................................................... 176 The League of American Bicyclists........................................................................................................ 176 League of Michigan Bicyclists ............................................................................................................... 176 Pedal Safe Roanoke .............................................................................................................................. 176 People for Bikes .................................................................................................................................... 176 Propel ATL (formerly Atlanta Bicycle Coalition) ................................................................................... 176 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Advocacy Organizations ............................................................................ 176 Bike Walk Connecticut .......................................................................................................................... 176 Bicycle Coalition of Maine .................................................................................................................... 176 Denver Streets Partnership (formerly Walk Denver and Bicycle Colorado)......................................... 177 Florida Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Coalition ................................................................................... 177 Living Street Alliance ............................................................................................................................ 177 National Center for Safety Routes to School ........................................................................................ 177 New Jersey Walk and Bike Coalition..................................................................................................... 177 New York Bicycling Coalition ................................................................................................................ 177 North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority.................................................................................. 177 Palmetto Cycling Association................................................................................................................ 177 UNC Highway Safety Research Center.................................................................................................. 177 The Street Trust .................................................................................................................................... 177 Walk Arlington ...................................................................................................................................... 178 Wisconsin Bike Federation ................................................................................................................... 178 Motorcycle Advocacy Organizations ............................................................................................... 178 Motorcycle Safety Foundation ............................................................................................................. 178
List of Tables Table 1. Safety Critical Scenarios and Associated Rationales and Considerations................................. 2 Table 2 Risk Rating and Probability Definitions .................................................................................. 2 Table 3. Risk Matrix .......................................................................................................................... 3 Table 4. Summary of Theories ........................................................................................................... 9 Table 5. Data Types and Evaluation Factors Associated with Campaign Outcome Measurement ........23 Table 6. Traffic Safety and Health Communication Journals ...............................................................26 Table 7. Search Terms ......................................................................................................................27 Table 8. VRU Campaign Findings .......................................................................................................30 Table 9. Planned Pedestrian Cross-Tabulations .................................................................................36 Table 10. Planned Bicyclist Cross-Tabulations ...................................................................................37 Table 11. Planned Motorcycle Cross-Tabulations ..............................................................................37 Table 12. Proposed High-Risk Scenarios for Intervention Development .............................................38 Table 13. Scenario 1 Subgroup Categorization and Initial Messages ...................................................39 Table 14. Scenario 2 Subgroup Categorization and Initial Messages ...................................................40 Table 15. Scenario 3 Subgroup Categorization and Initial Messages ...................................................41 Table 16. Scenario 4 Subgroup Categorization and Initial Messages ...................................................41 Table 17. VRU Groups by Definitional Variables â Scenario 1 Pedestrians Entering the Roadway at Night ...............................................................................................................................................44 Table 18. VRU Groups by Definitional Variables â Scenario 2 Pedestrians Becoming Alcohol- impaired Before Walking..................................................................................................................44 Table 19. VRU Groups by Definitional Variables â Scenario 3 Bicyclists Ages 46-65 Riding in Urban Areas ...............................................................................................................................................45 Table 20.VRU Groups by Definitional Variables â Scenario 4 Motorcycles Riding Under the Influence of Alcohol ........................................................................................................................................45 Table 21. Risk Rating and Probability Definitions ..............................................................................49 Table 22. Risk Matrix........................................................................................................................50 Table 23. Driving-related Outreach Campaigns .................................................................................84 Table 24. Non-driving-related Outreach Campaigns ..........................................................................89 Table 25. Laws Affecting Bicycle Road Use by State (Gutierrez, 2021) .............................................. 167 List of Figures Figure 1. VRU groups and behaviors .................................................................................................26 Figure 2. Process for article inclusion ................................................................................................28 Figure 3. Example billboard from the Drinking and Driving Can Kill a Friendship Campaign circa 1985 (U.S. Department of Transportation & Ad Council, 1985)...................................................................79 Figure 4. Example of NHTSAâs Drugged Driving Awareness (Ad Council, 2020b)..................................80 Figure 5. Street-Smart NJ Campaign advertising ................................................................................95 Figure 6. Pedestrian safety poster and placement .............................................................................97 Figure 7. Operation See! Be Seen! poster ........................................................................................ 101 Figure 8. Free safety fair bicycle check ............................................................................................ 107 Figure 9. Street-Smart Virtual Reality Challenge .............................................................................. 110 Figure 10. CPBST workshop activities .............................................................................................. 112 Figure 11. Alert Today Alive Tomorrow digital advertisement ......................................................... 115 Figure 12. Ride Sober television concepts ....................................................................................... 119
Figure 13. San Francisco Vision Zero Great Gear Motorcycle Safety Video........................................ 122 Figure 14. Fatalities by year among VRU groups. ............................................................................. 131 Figure 15. Injuries by year among VRU groups. ............................................................................... 132 Figure 16. Pedestrian fatalities and injuries by year......................................................................... 133 Figure 17. Pedestrian fatalities and injuries by age for the period 2010â2018. ................................. 134 Figure 18. Pedestrian fatalities (left, n = 47,095) and injuries (right, n = 19,832) by gender for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................134 Figure 19. Pedestrian fatalities by race/ethnicity for the period 2010â2018 (n = 47,198). ................. 135 Figure 20. Pedestrian fatalities (top, n = 47,198) and injuries (bottom, n = 19,971) by disability for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................136 Figure 21. Pedestrian fatalities (left, n = 47,198) and injuries (right, n = 19,971) for under the influence for the period 2010â2018. ............................................................................................... 136 Figure 22. Pedestrian fatalities (left, n = 47,198) and injuries (right, n = 19,971) involving alcohol for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................137 Figure 23. Pedestrian fatalities (left, n = 47,198) and injuries (right, n = 19,971) involving drugs for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................137 Figure 24. Pedestrian fatalities (left, n = 47,198) and injuries (right, n = 19,971) by inattention for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................138 Figure 25. Pedestrian fatalities by weather condition for the period 2010â2018 (n = 47,198)............ 138 Figure 26. Pedestrian injuries by weather condition for the period 2010â2018 (n = 19,971).............. 139 Figure 27. Pedestrian fatalities by lighting condition for the period 2010â2018 (n = 47,198). ............ 139 Figure 28. Pedestrian injuries by lighting condition for the period 2010â2018 (n = 19,971). .............. 140 Figure 29. Pedestrian fatalities by location for the period 2010â2018 (n = 47,198). .......................... 141 Figure 30. Pedestrian injuries by location for the period 2010â2018 (n = 19,971). ............................ 141 Figure 31. Pedestrian fatalities by locality for the period 2010â2018 (n = 47,198)............................. 142 Figure 32. Bicyclist fatalities and injuries by year............................................................................. 143 Figure 33. Bicyclist fatalities and injuries by age for the period 2010â2018. ..................................... 144 Figure 34. Bicyclist fatalities (left, n = 6,862) and injuries (right, n = 14,223) by gender for the period 2010â2018. ....................................................................................................................................144 Figure 35. Bicyclist fatalities by race and ethnicity for the period 2010â2018 (n = 6,862). ................. 145 Figure 36. Bicyclist fatalities (top, n = 6,862) and injuries (bottom, n = 14,223) by disability for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................146 Figure 37. Bicyclist fatalities (left, n = 6,862) and injuries (right, n = 14,223) for those under the influence of alcohol for the period 2010â 2018. .............................................................................. 146 Figure 38. Bicyclist fatalities (left, n = 6,862) and injuries (right, n = 14,223) involving alcohol for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................147 Figure 39. Bicyclist fatalities (right, n = 6,862) and injuries (n = 14,223) involving drugs for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................147 Figure 40. Bicyclist fatalities (left, n = 6,862) and injuries (right, n = 14,223) by inattention for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................148 Figure 41. Bicyclist fatalities (top, n = 6,862) and injuries (bottom, n = 14,223) by weather condition for the period 2010â2018. .............................................................................................................. 149 Figure 42. Bicyclist fatalities (top, n = 6,862) and injuries (bottom, n = 14,223) by lighting condition for the period 2010â2018. .............................................................................................................. 150 Figure 43. Bicyclist fatalities (top, n = 6,862) and injuries (bottom, n = 14,223) by location for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................151 Figure 44. Bicyclist fatalities by locality for the period 2010â2018 (n = 6,862). ................................. 152 Figure 45. Motorcyclist fatalities and injuries by year. ..................................................................... 153
Figure 46. Motorcyclist fatalities and injuries by age. ...................................................................... 153 Figure 47. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,940) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) by gender for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................154 Figure 48. Motorcyclist fatalities by race/ethnicity for the period 2010â2018 (n = 40,951). .............. 155 Figure 49. Motorcycle fatalities (top, n = 40,951) and injuries (bottom, n = 20,586) by disability for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................156 Figure 50. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) by helmet use for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................156 Figure 51. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) by operator for the period 2010â2018. .........................................................................................................................157 Figure 52. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) for drivers under the influence of alcohol for the period 2010â2018. ......................................................................... 157 Figure 53. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,937) and injuries (right, n = 20,575) by driver drinking for the period 2010â2018. .............................................................................................................. 158 Figure 54. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) involving drugs for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................................158 Figure 55. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) involving driver inattention for the period 2010â2018. ............................................................................................ 159 Figure 56. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) by weather conditions for the period 2010â2018. ............................................................................................. 159 Figure 57. Motorcyclist fatalities (top, n = 40,951) and injuries (bottom, n = 20,586) by lighting conditions for the period 2010â2018. ............................................................................................. 160 Figure 58. Motorcyclist fatalities by locality for the period 2010â2018 (n = 40,951). ......................... 160 Figure 59. Motorcyclist fatalities (top, n = 40,951) and injuries (bottom, n = 20,586) by relation to roadway for the period 2010â2018. ................................................................................................ 161 Figure 60. Motorcyclist fatalities (top, n = 40,951) and injuries (bottom, n = 20,586) by relation to junction for the period 2010â2018.................................................................................................. 162 Figure 61. Motorcyclist fatalities (left, n = 40,951) and injuries (right, n = 20,586) by intersection type for the period 2010â2018. ...................................................................................................... 163 Figure 62. Personal conveyance fatalities and injuries by year. ........................................................ 163 Figure 63. Personal conveyance fatalities and injuries by age for the period 2010â2018................... 164 Figure 64. State statutes regarding motorists passing bicyclists (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2020). ........................................................................................................................170 Figure 65. Bicycle helmet use age requirements. ............................................................................. 171 Figure 66. Summary of motorcycle helmet use laws. ....................................................................... 172 Figure 67. Motorcycle lane splitting by state as of September 2019 (Motorcycle Legal Foundation, 2019). ............................................................................................................................................173
List of Acronyms AST Agenda Setting Theory CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention DMA Designated Market Area ELM Elaboration Likelihood Model EPPM Extended Parallel Process Model FHWA Federal Highway Administration FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration HBM Health Belief Model IIHS Insurance Institute for Highway Safety IMBP Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction K2A Knowledge to Action Framework NHTSA National Traffic Safety Administration NSC National Safety Council NSCA National Center for Statistics and Analysis PHM Persuasive Health Message Framework PMT Protection Motivation Theory PWM Prototype Willingness Model SCM Stages of Change Model SCT Social Cognitive Theory TPB Theory of Planned Behavior TRA Theory of Reasoned Action USDOT U.S. Department of Transportation VBN Value-Belief-Norm Theory VRU Vulnerable Road User VTTI Virginia Tech Transportation Institute WHO World Health Organization
