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The geotechnical problems associated with deep mining and low-grade ore extraction include the geo- logical and chemical definition of ore bodies; an un derstanding of rock failure mechanisms, especially for jointed host rock under elevated pressures; determi- nation of the state of stress ahead of mine openings by remote methods; fluid flow properties of rock masses; fluid-rock chemical interactions; detection of geologic hazards ahead of working faces in mines; improved fragmentation techniques; and effective re- mote techniques for characterizing soil and rock. Industrial minerals, including quality aggregates, essentially have the same resource development pro- blems as other nonfuel minerals, with the exception that most are surface mined and have the added burdens of conflicting with future land use and having exten- Sive enviromental r pair costs. Research to inte- grate the utilization of waste rock into surface mine closure plans is needed. The innovative use of waste materials for reclamation purposes could enhance fu- ture land use, minimize negative enviromental in pacts, and reduce costs associated with postclosure remediation efforts. Water Water resources include both surface sources and groundwater aquifers. Geotechnical issues related to surface sources fall under three broad categories-ââ water transportation, water retention, and water quality management. Water is generally transported through tunnels, rivers, streams, canals, or other sys- tems that rely on the impermeability and stability of soil and rock for containment. Water is retained by Gams, impoundments, and other structures for control- ling water flow into or through geologic media. Water quality management involves the control of point and nonpoint sources of contaminants, as well as cleanup and remediation activities. For underground aquifers, the main geotechnical problems involve several issues: the location of ter sources; estimating the behavior of ground- water flow systems, including subsurface aquifers; the development of better means of characterizing hydraul- 56
ic rock and soil properties in situ; leach contamina- tion from the chemical degradation of associated rock and soil; and the development of better methods am locations for artificial recharge of aquifers. Ways to modify soil and rock properties to enhance aquifer productivity, the protection of aquifers from water quality degradation, and the development of remedia- tion techniques for application to aquifers that have already experienced water quality degradation should be investigated. In the future, storage of water in underground openings may become common. Summary Three aspects of recovery and conservation of the nationâs energy, materials, and water resources, on which geotechnology may have an impact, have been identified. The first is resource definition (or de- lineation)--the processes of identifying, locating, and characterizing a resource before it can be exploit- ed for benefit. Second is extraction efficiency-â-the process of maximal recovery of a resource value from the earth. Third is resource contairment efficiencyâ the process of control applied to the resource during and after its development to prevent depletion or en- vironmental or other damage to the earth structures. Some areas which must be addressed are identified as follows: @ new and improved techniques for resource loca- tion and definition; @ improved in situ techniques for the measurement of rock and soil properties, especially hydraulic and mechanical properties; @ new approaches to define the state of stress in geologic formations; @ better understanding of the mechanism of rock fracture propagation; @ development of methods to detect and locate dis- continuities within rock masses; @ improved understanding of the thermomechanical, thermochemical, and thermophysical properties of geologic materials; 57
@e definition of the influence of rock properties, including discontinuities, on fluid flow through a rock mass; and @e determination of geochemical and hydrochemical interactions affecting aquifer restoration and contami- nant migration and attenuation. Improved knowledge in these areas can positively affect the efficiency of resource exploitation, reduce negative environmental impacts, and improve the safety of work with geologic materials. MITIGATION OF NATURAL HAZARDS Natural hazards affect mankind worldwide and pro- duce some of the most catastrophic losses of life and property. Less spectacular incidents also cause the loss of property and life. During the past 20 years, worldwide natural hazards have claimed more than 2.8 million lives and have ted in property damage in excess of $100 billi While some regions are more prone to certain natural disasters than othersâ for example, earthquakes on the Pacific rim or hurri- canes on the East Coast of the United States--no area is totally immne from exposure to natural hazards. It has been demonstrated that hazard damag can be avoided or reduced by appropriate monitoring, plan- ning, and mitigation strategies. These strategies involve land use management, engineering control sys- tems, early warning programs, and rapid disaster re- sponse. Engineering and technology are the keys under- pinning these planning and mitigation strategies. In particular, geotechnical engineering can make uniquely important contributions to mitigate the effects of se- vere natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, floods, and volcances. For example, the destruction resulting from earthquake-induced liquefaction (as 28advisory Comittee on the International Decade for Natural Hazard Mitigation, National Research Council. 1987. Confronting Natural Disasters. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 58
described in the box, page 59) can be mitigated withproper siting strategies and soil improvement that are based in geotechnology. Other threats receive less attention because they are not catastrophic in nature, yet they involve significant costs to the public. Nevertheless, they are amenable to geotechnical solutions. Included in this group are subsidence and swelling soils. Types of Hazards Earthquakes. Earthquakes are among the most ex- treme natural hazards. They occur with little or no warning, have the potential to inflict catastrophic loss, are widely distributed in their occurrence, and cause loss of life and injury to tens of thousands of individuals each year. Geotechnical engineering is a key technology to both the understanding of earthquake effects and the development of effective mitigation strategies. The propagation of earthquake energy through and along the surface of the ground is depend- ent upon principles of geotechnical engineering. Pre- dicting the specific response of a site, region, or facility is the purview of geotechnical engineers. De- Signing structures and foundations that are resistant to earthquakes is a major facet of geotechnical engi- neering research amd practice. Finally, the broad range of mitigation strategies from prediction to early warning am including instrumentation and dis- aster response depends on input from geotechnical engineers. Iandslides. Landslides occur in virtually every country, and their occurrence is widely distributed within the United States. Losses in terms of both life and property from landslides are typically much larger than those from earthquakes. Although major landslide events do occur in a catastrophic mode, the insidious and widespread impacts of noncatastrophic landslides are a more severe problem. Successful and cost-effective mitigation programs have been implemen- ted in several countries and in sam parts of the United States. These programs have had a fundamental basis in geotechnology. 59
Alaskan earthquake of 1964 (magnitude vision oO LV | les o âSl eae y-five homes twisted, slumped, or colla sed âliquefaction of subsoils caused a complex BOHAIAS [ B O P BASEIY parts of the suburban bluff as m Landsli 1976. California Geology Slosson. and J.E. the United States. °0 J.P in 224-231. a 22xrohn Potenti 29 (10) 60
Avalanches. In principle, snow and ice avalanches have much in common with landslides. Both are caused by a gravity-induced instability in a natural material on a sloping surface. Avalanches cause much of their damage through their impact on structures and facili- ties in the zone where debris flows or comes to rest. The principles of predicting and controlling snow and ice avalanches are very similar to the principles of geotechnology associated with landslides. While the damage and loss of life associated with avalanches is much smaller than the comparable damage from land slides, in certain local areas this hazard poses great risk and potential loss. Subsidence. Ground subsidence is a hazard that is widely distributed and that occurs in many forms. Some types of subsidence occur naturally in undis- turbed formations, for example, the collapse that oc- curs in karst topography or that which is associated with the solutioning of various types of bedrock forma- tion. Other causes of subsidence are ue to the works of man, for example, coal mining subsidence, sub- sidence associated with groundwater withdrawal, or subsidence associated with the wetting of certain sus- ceptible soils. The annual estimate of loss caused by subsidence in the United States exceeds $1 billion. Geotechnology provides the principal technologies for subsidence prediction, mitigation, and control. Swelling Soils. It has been estimated that more than $6 billion of loss per year occurs in the United States as a result of swelling soils. This loss is widely distributed and is not of a catastroph- ic nature in the sense that it occurs rapidly or with a potential risk to life. Nevertheless, this major national loss is of great economic concern. Although swelling soils are widely distributed in the United States, there are certain areas of the country where 30Ssnethen, D.R. 1986. Expansive Soils. Ground Failure 3:12-15. (Newsletter for the Committee on Ground Failure Hazards, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.) 61
swelling soils are particularly prevalent and wherelosses are concentrated, such as the east range of the Rockies and throughout the southwestern states. Geotechnology is used to predict the occurrence of swelling soils through an understanding of certain physical properties and geologic indicators. The con- trol of swelling soil problems through appropriate en- gineering and construction techniques is possible based on research and practical solutions developed by Erosion. The ubiquitous problem of erosion causes extensive damage and loss of life. Erosion is a con- sequence of the day-to-day impact of wind and water on the surface of the land and is also associated with catastrophic flood events. Coastal erosion is of par- ticular concern in areas subjected to hurricanes. Geotechnology, again, plays a critical role in protect- ing, modeling, amd controlling the movement of soils under the impact of erosive agents. Other Hazards. Several other natural and man- caused hazards have a strong relevance to geotech- nology, including permafrost amd rock bursts. As illustrated in a previous chapter, some success has been achieved in mitigating and preventing rock bursts. National Issues Mitigating the effects of natural hazards is an inm- portant issue at all levels of federal, state, and local government, as well as in the private sector. Hazard reduction, planning for response, mitigation programs, and control processes are all topical re- sponsibilities for various agencies. At the federal level in particular, the Federal Emergency Management Authority has the responsibility for a broad range of hazard mitigation programs. Geotechnology plays a major role in understanding and controlling these hazards. At state and local levels, the focus on hazard mi- tigation is more diffuse, but the responsibility is no less important. The private sector also is vitally 62
concerned with hazard mitigation regarding the impact it has on both private property and the financial un- derpinnings of private enterprise, particularly and insurance programs. Several recent major natural disasters have focus- ed attention on the impact that a failure can have on reducing the defense capability of the United States. For example, the landslide in Thistle Canyon, Utah, severed a major rail line that was vital to the de- fense interests of the United States. To the extent that transport and mobility are made vulnerable, this becomes a major defense issue. Internati Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction The Committee on Natural Disasters of the National Research Council has proposed establishing the Interna- tional Decade of Natural Hazard Reduction from 1990 through 1999. This proposal is based on a concept put forth by Dr. Frank Press, President of the National Academy of Sciences, and was presented to the United Nations, among other organizations. The proposal was well received, and the United Nations adopted a resolu- tion declaring the decade from the years 1990 to 2000 the Intggnational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction The purpose of the decade is to focus worldwide attention on the reduction of natural hazards or disasters. Identifying, predicting, controlling, amd mitigating natural disasters is a technology-intensive effort. Since many natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, landslides, and floods) have a strong geotechnical basis, the discipline must be a major contributor to such efforts during the next decade. 31666 footnote number 28. 32mitle change resulted from a United Nations resolution. 63
FRONTIER EXPLORATION AND DEVEL PMENT In the years and decades ahead, mankind can be ex- pected to venture farther into space and deeper into the earth itself. On earth, this involves the deep ocean, the deep underground, and the arctic regions, much of which remain to be explored and, at least to some extent, developed. It is not a question of if these explorations will occur; it is simply a matter of when and at what rate. The answer to these ques- tions depends both on the national will and o the development of the necessary technologies to meet the Challenges of living and working in the unfamiliar and hostile environments of these new frontiers. Success in these activities will depend as much on the satisfactory solution of geotechnical problems as on any other single scientific or technical issue. A review of the history and technology surrounding the development of energy resources of the continental shelf and the safe landing of vehicles and men on the moon provides examples of the geotechnical input that is required in frontier exploration and development. A brief indication is given below of the many geo- technical challenges that must be addressed and the vital role to be played by the geotechnical commnity as we move farther and farther away from our normal en- vironment. The Polar Regions Ice, extreme cold, permafrost, and periods of pro- longed darkness act as barriers to easy recovery of the energy resources and mineral wealth that lie be- neath the surface of the polar regions. The sensitivi- ty of this fragile environment means that all of manâs activities must be carried out only after careful delineation and analysis of all the potential detri- mental impacts of such activities. The safe and economical design and construction of foundations for structures, the provision of the essen- tial infrastructure for habitation in these remote areas, and the construction of offshore islands am mobile arctic caissons cannot be done, as recent his- tory has shown, without learning mo e about the proper- 64
ties of the soils and foundation conditions involved with these projects. This area is of particular in- terest to the petroleum industry and to national se- curity. Soil conditions include unusual silts, perma- frost, and an active zone that freezes and thaws each year. Little is known about erosion in the polar re- gions, the effects of spills amd leaks, or the best types of foundations that should be used to minimize The Deep Ocean Over the last 25 years the quest for hydrocarbons has led to the construction of offshore platforms in ever-increasing water depths. Currently, fixed plat- forms that are 1,500 feet high are being constructed. These $1 billion construction projects require de- tailed and sophisticated subsoil exploration, soil analysis, foundation design, and construction; a know- ledge of seafloor geologic processes is also essential. In offshore work to date, most soils and their Characteristics have been definable in terms of the more familiar deposits that are encountered on land. This is because the offshore sediments have been de- rived from the land. Notable exceptions include cal- careous sands found in the tropical climates of the world and arctic silts. In the deep ocean, however, new challenges may be expected. Water depths of thou- sands of feet, high pressures, low temperatures at the sea floor, and the presence of soil types with which we are mich less familiar, for example, the oozes and muds, mean that much must be learned before explora- tion can be performed and facilities can be sited and designed with confidence. What will be the roles and the concerns of the geo- technicians and geoscientists in the abyss of the deep ocean? There will be resources to be mined, founda- tions to be designed and constructed, structures to be anchored, instrumentation to be installed, and arti- cles to be retrieved. In addition, there may be wastes that will need to be safely buried and slopes that will need to be made stable. ~ 65
The Deep Underground There is much that has yet to be learned about the earth: its camposition and structure and the tectonic processes that shape its surface. Scientists will con- tinue to probe by deep drilling procedures to gain this knowledge. Drilling, sampling, remote sensing, and the analysis of geologic and seismologic processes will all be important components of the large-scale programs of the future, for example, the use of the earth as a heat sink as well as for its geothermal po- tential. Thus, the study and exploration of the deep underground is largely a geotechnical issue. â Space Iunar and planetary landings began during the lat- ter half of the twentieth century; lunar and planetary bases and resource development can be expected during the first part of the twenty-first century. Rock and soil cover the surface of the moon, am presumably soil or soil-like material covers the planets in the earthâs solar system as well. Where did it come from? How was it formed? What are its properties? A considerable amount has been learned about the mechani- cal properties of the soil on the moon already, and geotechnical engineers can approach the next stages of lunar activity with some understanding and confidence. Similar information must be obtained for the planets that will be the sites of manâs next landings. Only then will it be possible to design and build shelters, move vehicles about with safety, set up stable instruments and observatories, and develop any available resources. 66
CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES Education, professional practice, and research are subjects that relate to each of the issues discussed throughout this report. Accordingly, they are treated GHOTECHNICAL EDUCATION Geotechnology is taught predominantly at the gradu- ate level, so most professionals in this field have ad- vanced degrees. The ability for geotechnology to con- tinue to meet national and professional needs depends to a great extent on continued improvement in the qual- ity of education that geotechnology professionals re- ceive at the graduate level. Because of the complexity of the behavior of the earth materials with which they work, it is important that geotechnology professionals receive instruction in the laboratory and the field, as well as in the classroon. Geotechnology relies on good judgment. This is hard to teach in the traditional sense, but programs that use experienced practitioners will find that they have an invaluable resource. Computers will continue to be used more and mre widely in geotechnical engineering and construction, and it is important, therefore, that geotechnology students be educated in the practical use of comu- ters. The principles of probability and uncertainty also play an important role in geotechnology, arn it is desirable that all geotechnology students be ex- posed to these concepts. PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE The Team Concept The concept that the geotechnology professional 67
should serve as a consultant to civil works projects should be changed. Use of a consultant implies that geotechnology plays an auxiliary role to the project, whereas in most cases, a team approach in whi h the geotechnologist is involved throughout the design and construction process is more appropriate. If the geo- technical engineer or scientist can be made an ongoing member of the team throughout the development of de- sign and construction, then the engineer is in a mich better position to take a balanced view of risk and op- portunity and to adapt recommendations to actual condi- tions as they are disclosed. If the engineer is isolated from the mainstream of design and construction as a specialist, a perception is developed that consultation may be limited during detailed design and construction, when the actual ground conditions are exposed. Under these ciranm- stances, the engineer has a strong incentive to postu- late the worst conditions that may be imagined ard to make correspondingly conservative assumptions and re- commendations. The cancerous growth of the liability syndrome, which has led to the unavailability and ex- cessive cost of professional liability insurance, greatly exacerbates this problen. Educating he User The most fruitful and economical geotechnical solu- tions are frequently based on observational methods. Relatively optimistic assumptions regarding ground con- ditions are made, consistent with economical construc- tion methods. A system of field instrumentation and monitoring is established to provide early detection of deviations from the design assumptions, and provi- sions are made to modify design details and construc- tion procedures if adverse conditions are detected or disclosed. Such a system adapts the design and con- struction optimally to the actual conditions. If no adverse conditions develop, only the minimum construc- tion expenditure is required. If difficult conditions arise, they are dealt with appropriately at a reason- able additional cost. Large savings may be realized with such a system, compared with the traditional de- Signs and contracting procedures, in which an inflex- 68
ible design is conceived on the basis of very conserva- tive assumptions, and the construction that is neces- sary to deal with the anticipated conditions based on these assumptions is implemented wheth r or not those conditions actually develop. Implementation of the oabservational approach re- quires a sophisticated user who understands the ob- jectives and requirements of the technique and who is willing (and able) to adopt the necessary flexible con- tracting practices and to provide knowledgeable con- struction inspection and contract administration. Generally, such quality engineering services are not secured through a competitive price procedure for the selection of geotechnical engineers. Educating the user on the benefits of these concepts is an important aspect of improving the science and engineering of geo- technology. Minimizing Disput It is essential that the geotechnical engineer be involved in inspection during construction of under- ground works, foundation preparation, and the building of earth and rock structures, if construction problems and disputes are to be minimized. Underground con- struction inherently and inevitably involves disclo- sure of actual site conditions that differ to same extent from those that were assumed on the basis of information that was available prior to the start of construction. The special expertise of the geotech- nical engineer is essential for the detection of field conditions that are indicators of problems, so that ad- justments can be made before minor problems escalate to major ones. The factual data that he or she secure and document may be crucial to establishing whether contractual changes and cost adjustments are required. Experienced owners have learned that the cost of geo- technical services is usually a small fraction of the legal and consequential damage costs that are incurred in the disputes that arise when geotechnical services are dispensed with or curtailed. 69
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER A recent open letter from the chairman of the American Association of Engineering Societies (AAES) to U.S. chief executive officers points out that a balance is lacking over the full cycle of research, from basic science to broad exploitation. Basic re- search and development has been generally promoted, but middle ground research and development-â-defined as invention and implementation--has suffered. Thus, "the ability to convert science to a technology base from which commercialization and exploitation can flow" is lacking in the United States, but not so with our trading partners and/or foreign competitors. Geo- technology research has also generally avoided middle ground research. In geotechnology this translates into the inability of turning university and govern- ment research into something of value to the users (the private sector, for example, energy firms, con- struction industries, and defense contractors). Successful research programs will require equal inputs from researchers, commercial producers, and end pro- duct users. Cooperation and coordination are critical to successful research, and technology transfer should not be a separate process that occurs downstream fram research and development. 70
ACTION AGENDA Geotechnology--the science and engineering of soil and rock--will play an increasingly important role in solving many national issues that have become proni- nent concerns of the United States. In preparing this report, the Geotechnical Board chose certain areas of national, state, and local policymaking in which geo- technology is certain to play a significant role now and in the near future. The report explains that role for the layman and delineates those aspects of research and policy that will require attention for the effective use of the geotechnical resource base. The report provides an abjective and broad basis for the future work of the Board and should assist policy- makers in understanding the value of geotechnology. The Board has developed the following agenda for action that the geotechnical community must pursue in the coming years in order to meet the needs of the public in addressing the selected national issues pre- sented and discussed earlier here. The agenda is by no means exhaustive, and specific details certainly deserve further deliberation; nevertheless, it pre- sents some guidance as to the next steps that are needed if geotechnology is to be used effectively to address these national issues adequately. WASTE MANAGEMENT Solid and Toxic Wastes The Issue(s). While serving to focus attention on many of the technical issues, the current Remedial In- vestigation and Feasibility Study (RI/FS) processes that are used to initiate the remediation of problems with toxic and hazardous waste-contaminated sites are very slow and costly. The permitting process for new disposal facilities is unnecessarily long and complex. Furthermore, the adversarial relationships between 71
government, industry, and the public that the present system engenders cause delays, high costs, and frustra- tion among the concerned parties. What should be done? Action is needed to stream line the processes for siting, designing, and con- structing new facilities and implementing site clean- up. Geotechnology will play a role in such areas as: @ developing standards that are founded in tech- nical reality; e introducing new technologies; @ allowing technical considerations to take a higher priority than enforcement considerations; @ changing the RI/FS process to the observational approach common in other areas of geotechnology; @ improving instrumentation needed for perform ance assessment; and @e improving site characterization for both locat- ing new landfills and characterizing existing sites. The most urgent need is for the rapid, effective, and economical cleanup of waste-contaminated sites. How should we do it? Because of the large number of uncertainties at any site, the development of a strategy for cleanup is admirably suited for applica- tion of the "observational method," an approach developed by R.B. Peck a mimber of years ago for use in the solution of difficult soil and foundation en- gineering problems. In this approach, the inherent uncertainties of a site are recognized at the outset. The most probable site conditions are established from the results of a carefully designed site investigation program, a course of action is adopted, and alterna- tive actions are identified for use in the event that the initial plan does not lead to the desired results. Careful monitoring is carried out during implementa- tion of the plan, and the results are used as a basis for continuation of the initial plan or modifications as necessary based on the new information. Properly implemented, the observational method should offer the potential for cleaner sites in shorter times an at lower costs. It is recommended that a panel study be undertaken to develop a clear statement of the observational method as it would be applied to a Superfund site and 72
to use the results of this study as a basis for discus- sions with all parties in the remediation process-- regulators, the public, the potentially responsible parties, the technical experts, and the litigators. The Issue(s). Disposal of high-level radioactive waste in a deep geologic repository poses some techni- cal questions that are pushing the limits of geotechnology. What should be done? Action is needed to: @ expand our ability to characterize large rock and soil masses, particularly by nondestructive means; @e improve and field validate theoretical models that describe the processes that are of concern to the repository (e.g., unsaturated flow models, models des- cribing thermal-chemical-mechanical coupled behavior, and models that extrapolate short-term behavior to long-term (thousands of years) predictions; @ improve instrumentation both for site charac terization and performance assessment; and @ encourage education in those fields of geotech- nology needed to ensure sufficiently qualified man- power for the unique needs of high-level radioactive waste storage. How should we do it? A significant research pro- gram that includes large-scale field testing must be initiated to meet the objectives of the high-level radioactive waste disposal program. INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT AND REHABILITATION The Issue(s). Meeting the backlogged rehabilita- tion needs of existing facilities and addressing ef- fectively the development of new infrastructure sys- tems with a coordinated interdisciplinary approach is the goal. Geotechnology will be a _ prominent discipline in this activity. 73
NATIONAL SECURITY The Issue(s). To meet the national security needs of the United States. What should be done? Action is needed to: @® ensure that the weapons effects comity will have a pool of trained professionals from which to draw; and @ introduce a more systematic approach to ground shock predictions--a combined theoretical and experi- mental approach that provides for the appropriate vali- dation of calculational models. How should we do it? We need to encourage the teaching of ground motion geomechanics at the univer- sity level and encourage participation in contiming education courses by the weapons commnity. As for improving our geotechnical capability to address is- sues pertinent to national security, we must establish systematic pre- and post-shot geotechnical characteri- zation of explosion sites (documenting the geology, the pre- and post-shot fracturing, amd the post shot deformations) . We must also develop more credible instrumentation to estimate multicomponent ground stresses during shock passage. An assessment of current calculational approaches is needed. For example, continuum dynamic models should be configured to include mltiphase (solids, liquids, and gases) behavior, as well as the behavior of fractures and fragmentation. Discontinuous model- ing for ground shock calculations in jointed rocks is an area that has not yet been exploited; it should be actively developed. RESOURCE DISCOVERY AND RECOVERY The Issue(s). Cost-effective approaches to the discovery and recovery of U.S. natural resources are needed to encourage a competitive resource industry. What should be done? The geotechnical input will be needed to: 76
@ greatly improve our ability to "see through" rock; bore holes and other exploratory openings created in the earthâs crust represent a minuscule volume compared with the size of the domain to be investigated; much better remote-sensing techniques to locate minerals, fluids, and the details of rock structures are needed; @ improve our ability to drill through rock, thus bringing down the cost of exploration and excavation; and @ improve rock excavation methods; for example, methods that are faster and less damaging to the rock mass are needed. How should we do it? New research should be pro- moted that applies the expertise of scientists in other disciplines (chemists, biologists, electrical engineers, and physicists) to the problems of mining resources. Dedicated sites where new techniques can be field tested should be established. The United States must acquire and evaluate for- eign technology in these areas. Scientists and engi- neers who are fluent in foreign languages must travel to seek the information, bring it back to the United States, and disseminate it through lectures, special technology transfer seminars and programs, and reports. MITIGATION OF NATURAL HAZARDS The Issue(s). Current technology must be used more effectively to reduce the losses, both in lives and in monetary costs, resulting from natural hazards. What should be done? Geotechnology will be needed in the area of natural hazard mitigation to: @ promote better land-use planning; @® encourage the use of state-of- the-art technology in the design and construction of struc- tures with geotechnical components; @® incorporate risk assessment in design and miti- gation strategies; @ play a part in large-scale field research; and 77
@ promote international exchange of technology and cooperation in research. How should we do it? In order to reduce the in- pact of natural hazards on both human suffering and economic loss, we need to develop mechanisms in govern- ment that provide strong leadership for coordination of on-going and future activities at the various levels of government. We need to promote the concept of a multihazard approach to mitigation efforts. The multihazard approach identifies problems that are com mon to many types of hazards, and thus encourages can munities involved with the various hazards to work to- gether to solve common problems. We need to encourage the insurance and financial commmities to work to- gether with public policy makers and the engineering commnity to provide comprehensive programs of natural hazard mitigation. We need to promote iternational cooperation and technology exchange. Paradoxically, while the United States has been a major educator of foreign students in geotechnical disciplines for several decades, very few U.S. engineers have been educated or have signifi- cant work experience in foreign countries. This has led to a situation in which U.S. technological innova- tions have been readily transported to other coun- tries, but there has been limited transfer of foreign innovation to the United States. Formal participation in cooperative international programs has been difficult to maintain am likely will require some sort of participation by the U.S. government. In most countries, national groups are associated with and supported by a govermment division or professional society with government support. The United States must adopt more effective structures for international cooperation. Exchange of U.S. and for- eign personnel is the most effective (and an essen- tial) mechanism for improved technology transfer with other countries. Programs to support foreign tech- nology missions should be encouraged, and foreign lan- guages should become a part of geotechnical education. 78
