Work Zone Speed Management (2015)

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67 chapter eight WORK ZONE SPEEDING PUBLIC EDUCATION AND OUTREACH INTRODUCTION Many state transportation departments and other agencies engage in public education and outreach aimed at increasing compliance with work zone speed limits and improving work zone safety in general. To date there have been very few assess- ments of the effectiveness of these campaigns. To gain a better understanding of current agency practices, 43 public service announcements (PSAs) and other outreach materials posted by transportation agencies on YouTube were reviewed. In addi- tion, state DOTs were surveyed to learn more about their work zone public outreach and education efforts; the survey findings are discussed in chapter eleven. Founded in 2005, YouTube is an advertising-supported online service that allows “billions of people” to watch and share videos (YouTube 2014). As of July 2014, the Internet ratings service Alexa ranked youtube.com number 3 globally among all websites (Alexa 2014). YouTube was also ranked number 3 in the United States (behind search engine Google and social media site Facebook). Alexa estimated that 19.2% of all YouTube views originated in the United States. Report- edly, the average YouTube visitor viewed 9.41 web pages and spent 19 minutes on the site. Alexa also estimated that 3.56 million other websites have links to YouTube. State DOTs conduct at least two types of work zone public outreach campaigns: • Programmatic campaigns typically address general work zone safety issues. Their intent appears to be to encour- age drivers to reduce speeds, respect workers, drive attentively, and practice other good driving habits in work zones. • Project-specific campaigns are typically aimed at notify- ing the public about the anticipated traffic impacts of an individual highway project (or phase of a project). Per- haps the most famous example of a project-specific cam- paign was launched approximately six weeks in advance of the 53-hour full closure of more than 10 miles of I-405 in Los Angeles over a weekend in July 2011. Dubbed Carmageddon by local media, the project received nationwide publicity before and after the closure, in part because “warnings of catastrophic congestion had been so dire and so relentless that people in the region drastically reduced their driving” (Kandel 2011; Winer et al. 2014). A handful of studies have evaluated project-specific work zone awareness campaigns. For example, Choi et al. (2009) evaluated public perceptions of an earlier extended closure of a 2.8-mile segment of I-405 east of Los Angeles and found that “the outreach program effectively reduced traffic demand.” Similarly, an evaluation of the 2003 “Hyperfix” full freeway closure on I-65/70 in Indianapolis, Indiana, explored the media outlets that individuals and businesses used to get information about the project (Sinha et al. 2004). In spite of the ongoing nature of programmatic work zone public out- reach campaigns, formal evaluations are rare. Therefore, pub- licly available information was used to learn more about the content of programmatic DOT work zone safety campaigns, the extent to which they focus on work zone speeding, and their view rates. There are at least four dimensions to be considered when evaluating mass media effectiveness: • Coverage (who is exposed to a communication), • Response (reactions to the communication’s content), • Impact (determinable impacts on the audience), and • Process (the manner by which communications influence the audience) (Wright 1955). This research focused solely on content and coverage: What are the themes of the work zone safety videos on YouTube? How frequently are they viewed? METHODOLOGY To ensure inclusion of as many relevant work zone safety campaigns as possible, the research team began by search- ing YouTube for work zone safety PSAs. Search terms such as “work zone safety” were applied using YouTube’s search function. When relevant videos were located, automated links were followed to identify similar material. Also all U.S. state DOT websites were checked to find links to videos the agen- cies had posted. The review focused on agency-produced road-user safety materials posted as of early April 2014. (Road worker instructional materials and materials produced by indi- viduals were not included in the analysis.) The videos were evaluated to identify common themes. Every video on YouTube is accompanied by the date it was posted and the cumulative number of views; the team used this information to compute view rates by dividing the num- ber of reported views by the number of days the video had been online. A summary can be found in Table 12.

68 Views/ Day Views Date Published Length (min:sec) Sponsor Title Theme Description 116.02 77,150 11-Jun-12 0:32 Vermont DOT AOT Summer Work Zone Safety Be considerate of workers Clips of workers asking people to respect them and slow down and be safe. 108.95 68,312 19-Jul-12 2:43 Quebec Ministry of Transport Un Chantier Dans Tous Ses États (A work zone in all conditions) Worker’s perspective of the work zone TV personality Pierre-Yves Lord visits a work site to see what it looks like on the other side of the orange drums. 8.24 2,940 15-Apr-13 1:02 Virginia DOT Work Zone Safety Awareness Week Safety Video Be considerate of workers Highway workers being extremely disruptive and rude in an office. Respect workers office. We’re all in this together. 7.78 2,871 3-Apr-13 0:32 AASHTO 2013 Nat. Work Zone Awareness PSA Work Zone Tips Stats on work zone fatalities. Tips on staying safe. Announcement of Work Zone Awareness Week. 6.04 13,132 23-Apr-08 0:30 Wisconsin DOT What Have I Done? Worker Fatalities Shows man looking scared in a vehicle involved in a crash. Then looking very sad looking over the body of a dead worker as emergency crews rush in. 4.76 10,525 20-Mar-08 6:06 New York State DOT A Family’s Grief— Your Car Is Like a Weapon Interviews with people affected by a specific highway crash. Interviews with multiple people affected by a fatality in a work zone. Multiple people asking motorists to slow down. 4.03 5,949 23-Mar-10 0:40 AASHTO National Work Zone Awareness Week Work zone deaths don’t need to happen Stats on work zone fatalities. Anecdote from a widow. Raise awareness of work awareness week. 3.15 5,205 27-Sep-09 6:12 Texas DOT Work Zone Safety Fatalities in Work Zones. Increasing Awareness. Started with statistics on work zone fatalities and collisions. Offered general safety tips and anecdotes. 2.85 2,028 25-Apr-12 4:07 Washington DOT Workzone Safety 2012 Drive safely so everyone comes home Man in a hurry runs a work zone stop sign, injures worker. Meets the worker later, feels guilty, apologizes. 2.15 775 12-Apr-13 2:26 Missouri DOT St. Louis Work Zone Safety: I survived Pay Attention in work zones Anecdote from highway worker hit by a truck asking people to pay attention and move over. 1.99 376 30-Sep-13 0:36 Georgia DOT Work Zone Safety Drivers have to be aware how dangerous it is Short clip of interview with state safety manager on how dangerous it is. 1.84 1,324 19-Apr-12 0:30 Kansas DOT Work Zone Safety— It’s for Everybody Safety is Important for driver too Short PSA showing highway worker asking people to slow down “for me, and for you.” 1.82 2,014 29-Mar-11 1:39 Kansas DOT Workzone Safety Be safe when you see orange on the roadway Images of people wearing orange, showing support for highway workers. General work zone safety tips. 1.29 449 24-Apr-13 7:31 Pennsylvania DOT Just Drive—Work Zone Smart Personal responsibility Starts with the focus on an incident where a driver caused three fatalities under the influence of prescribed drugs. Second half is tips and consequences relating to work zone safety. TABLE 12 INVENTORY OF DOT WORK ZONE PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENTS ON YOUTUBE AS OF APRIL 2014 (listed in decreasing order of views per day)

69 Views/ Day Views Date Published Length (min:sec) Sponsor Title Theme Description 1.15 15 25-Mar-14 3:57 Oklahoma DOT Workzone Awareness Respect and awareness for highway workers Anecdotes from two workers involved in a work zone crash. 1.11 1,552 15-Jun-10 0:42 Kentucky Transportation KY Hwy Improve- ments Underscore Importance Of WZ Safety General safety instruction Clips of workers working and narration on work zone safety. 1.09 1,196 1-Apr-11 2:07 New York City DOT The Importance of Work Zone Awareness Anecdote from widow Anecdote from a widow of highway worker. Periodic flashing of fatality statistics. Short interview with highway worker. 1.08 1,187 1-Apr-11 2:06 Virginia DOT Work Zone Safety— Faces Behind the Numbers Family of killed worker Anecdote from a family struggling to recover after the loss of a loved one in a work zone. 1.07 508 18-Dec-12 0:38 Texas DOT Work Zone Safety: We’re All in This Together General safety instruction Message from deputy executive director of 1.07 1,549 16-Apr-10 2:02 Missouri DOT WorkZone Safety Week with MoDOT and the Highway Patrol Ride along with MO State Patrol enforcing work zones Interview with police enforcing work zones and safety officials as part of work zone awareness week 1.04 1,508 13-Apr-10 0:30 Texas DOT What One Thing? Things to do to stay safe in work zones Clips of workers answering what one thing people should do to stay safe in work zones. 0.96 355 1-Apr-13 0:33 Indiana DOT Work Zone Awareness Week is April 15–19, 2013 Deaths in Indiana work zones Stats posted on signs. No dialogue. Sign asking “Will you slow down?” 0.96 220 20-Aug-13 2:16 Illinois DOT Work Zone Safety/ National Work Zone Memorial Wall Work zone memorial wall Interviews with worker who was severely injured in a crash and safety officials. 0.9 307 2-May-13 0:32 Wisconsin DOT Inconvenience— Work Zone Safety Move Over, Slow Down Animated clip of unsafe driver getting pulled over in a work zone. Mention of fines doubling in work zones. 0.69 759 31-Mar-11 2:15 Missouri DOT SE Region Work Zone Awareness 2011 Workers want to go home to their families Interviews with workers and their families talking about the dangers of work zones and how they want to get home safe to their families. Short mention of Work zone Awareness Week. 0.66 1,165 11-Jun-09 0:30 North Carolina DOT At the Office—Work Zone Safety PSA Don’t drive through someone’s workplace at 65 mph Paid actor on an office set with a short monologue about dangers of not slowing down in work zones. Car then crashes through work zone with people screaming. 0.66 1,163 11-Jun-09 0:31 North Carolina DOT In the Elevator— Work Zone Safety PSA Imagine what it’s like to be a worker Office setting, man complains about a work zone. Elevator opens onto a highway. “How would you like it if someone drove through your office at 65 mph?” 0.39 421 11-Apr-11 4:45 Maryland State Hwy. Admin Maryland leads the nation in work zone safety awareness kick-off General work zone safety awareness Clips from speeches from the kick-off press conference. TxDOT. TABLE 12 (continued) (continued on next page)

70 Views/ Day Views Date Published Length (min:sec) Sponsor Title Theme Description 0.38 142 25-Mar-13 5:32 Iowa DOT The Work Zone “Twilight Zone” theme Over-achieving driver with license plate GOGETR is so impatient she hits a flagger, then suddenly finds she is the flagger. 0.36 638 11-Jun-09 0:31 North Carolina DOT Applesauce—Work Zone Safety PSA One bad apple can spoil it for the rest of us Humorous commercial modeling apples as drivers. “It's bad enough they make applesauce out of themselves, they can hurt you and workers too.” 0.34 247 13-Apr-12 0:30 Missouri DOT Work Zone Awareness PSA 2012 Distracted Driving Man shown crashing into people with his cart at the super market. Ends with clip of workers saying “No one likes a distracted driver.” 0.32 466 9-Apr-10 0:30 Texas DOT Don’t be a statistic Drivers are more at risk More drivers are killed than workers. Text slides with dramatic music. 0.31 446 13-Apr-10 0:29 Kentucky Highway Safety Work Zone Safety Orange and black signs mean construction Animated sign explaining construction signs and safety. 0.3 332 14-Apr-11 1:59 Ohio DOT Work Zone Safety General safety instruction Clips from a press conference on why and how to be safe. 0.28 310 29-Mar-11 0:30 Kentucky Highway Safety My Daddy Works Here Be considerate of workers Daughter of killed worker asking drivers to slow down. 0.21 301 20-Apr-10 2:28 Idaho ITD In Motion—Work Zone Safety General safety instruction Interviews with officials and workers on why/how to be safe. 0.21 435 1-Jul-08 1:39 Oregon DOT Work Zone Safety Message Reasons for delay and tools and tips to stay safe Short message from Oregon Director of Transportation on construction for summer 2008 and tools and tips you should use to travel safe and efficiently. 0.19 113 10-Aug-12 0:15 Michigan DOT Don’t Barrel Through Work Zones Drivers are at risk The life you save could be your own. 0.13 47 19-Apr-13 1:06 Wyoming DOT Work Zone Safety Safety Tips in Work Zone Wyoming officials giving tips and safety measures for driving in work zones. 0.13 45 26-Apr-13 1:58 Mississippi DOT Work Zone Safety Awareness Press Conference Work Zone Safety awareness Short narration followed by short clips of speech given at press conference. 0.12 86 23-Apr-12 0:38 Nevada DOT Work Zone Safety Be considerate of workers Workers are people too. Slow down. 0.11 81 25-Apr-12 2:22 Ohio DOT Do Not Barrel Through Work Zones Slow Down, Be Alert, Save Lives Video of press conference for work zone awareness with some added clips and editing. 0.09 152 27-Jul-09 0:43 North Carolina DOT Under Construction: Trucking in the Work Zone Trucking in work zones Various scenes of truckers talking about how and why to be safe in work zones. 0.96 573 Median TABLE 12 (continued)

71 GENERAL FINDINGS A number of observations emerged from this process: • In general, agencies produce work zone safety videos in two formats: short PSAs (typically 30 seconds in dura- tion) and longer videos probably intended for use in driver education classes (typically about 5 minutes long). • Generally, speed reduction is just one of several work zone safety messages embedded in each video. Other common themes include expecting delays, being patient, avoiding texting and cell phone use, and respecting workers and other drivers. • Overall viewing rates for the work zone videos posted on YouTube were quite low, with a median value of 0.96 views per day. In general, videos that focused on work- ers doing their jobs received the most views. Press con- ferences and specialized videos (such as those directed toward truck drivers) received the fewest views. • The number of videos and frequency of posting suggest that individual state agencies appear to be devoting sub- stantial resources to video production, but very little of the content is specific to individual states or localities. • Agency efforts are often intermittent. New videos are typically posted in the spring around the time of National Work Zone Safety Awareness Week. Follow-ups later in the construction season are rare. VIEWING RATES AND EXCEPTIONAL CASES As detailed in Table 12, YouTube viewing rates for the work zone safety videos are low; most of the videos ranged from 0.09 to 8.24 views per day. In comparison, a 1½-minute PSA, Embrace Life—Always Wear Your Seat Belt (Sussex Safer Roads Partnership and Alexander 2010) averaged 10,960 views per day: more than 18 million YouTube views over the 4½ year period from January 2010 to July 2014. Two work zone safety videos had more than 100 views per day. The reasons for these outliers are unclear, but their content is similar: • The highest view rate (116 views per day) was obtained by AOT Summer Work Zone Safety, a 33-second PSA pro- duced by the Vermont Agency of Transportation. Fig- ure 45 provides a screen capture from the video, which is comprised of short clips where actual road workers (not actors) say they have seen co-workers hit by cars, ask the viewer to help keep them safe, and close by saying, “Your safe driving makes the work zone safer—for everyone.” • The second-highest view rate (106 views per day) was achieved by Un Chantier Dans Tous Ses États (A Work Zone in All Conditions), a 2¾-minute video produced by the Quebec Ministry of Transport. Figure 46 shows an image from the video. The view rate is notable given that the video is entirely in French, a minority language in North America. In the video, Quebec TV commenta- tor Pierre-Yves Lord puts on a hardhat, takes a look at the work zone from the workers’ point of view, works as a flagger, talks with a traffic control technician, and asks the viewer to look out for workers’ safety. Lord’s video has similar view rates and is thematically similar to a series of employee recruitment videos produced for the Quebec ministry, where employees in various occu- pations (such as bridge inspector, snow plow operator, engineer, environmental specialist, and surveyor) dis- cuss their work and its challenges. YouTube viewership is subject to self-selection, but col- lectively these results suggest that an effective strategy (at least in terms of viewing rates) may be quite straightforward: show viewers what it is like to work on the “other side of the barrels” and have the workers themselves ask the driver to “help keep everyone safe.” A similar worker-focused strategy was utilized in a recent Swiss work zone safety campaign, illustrated in Figure 47. In the safety psychology research literature there is consid- erable debate about whether health and safety messages are more effective when they evoke a positive tone (such as humor, FIGURE 45 The highest YouTube viewing rate was achieved by a 33-second Vermont Agency of Transportation video where highway workers address the viewer, “Please: watch out for me when you’re driving through a work zone.” FIGURE 46 TV commentator Pierre-Yves Lord puts on a safety vest as he prepares to find out what it is like to be a flagger in a video for the Quebec Ministry of Transport.

72 zone at speeds in the mid-60s if there was no visible work activity. When there was activity, drivers slowed by about 10 mph and went through the work zone at speeds in the upper 50s to low 60s—still above the work zone limit. Similarly, a recent Ohio study using simulated work zone driving environments found that the factors that most strongly influenced speed were worker presence, con- struction vehicle presence, and enforcement (Sommers and McAvoy 2013). • A 1999 study found an average decrease in mean speeds of 5.1 mph in work zones where the posted speed limit remained unchanged from the ordinary limit (Migletz et al. 1999). In spite of these voluntary speed reductions, it is likely that a substantial proportion of the drivers in most work zones are still well above the work zone speed limit. For example, in many states a fairly typical practice is to post a work zone speed limit of 55 mph or 60 mph on a freeway where the speed limit is ordinarily 65 mph. In such a scenario, the actual traffic speed upstream of the work zone might be closer to 72 mph. If drivers voluntarily reduce their speeds by 5 mph, they will be proceeding through the work zone at about 67 mph, which is 7 to 12 mph above the work zone speed limit. The content of the state DOT work zone public service announcements posted on YouTube were reviewed. Although some campaigns tell drivers to observe the work zone speed limit, none of the campaigns suggested a specific numeri- cal speed reduction target. Therefore, it is possible that the majority of viewers believe their driving already con- forms with the campaigns’ goals, when actually their speed reductions fall short of the levels desired by the sponsoring agencies. While not focused specifically on work zones, a 2000 Brit- ish survey about attitudes toward speeding offers additional insights (Silcock et al. 2000): Speeding is not seen as a crime. Whilst “serious speeding” is accepted as dangerous, “moderate speeding” is not. There is a widespread view that the stereotypical images of the “boy racer” and the “company car driver” are the problem, not “me.” Until there is a general acceptance of the breadth and depth of the et al. 2010). The viewing rate analysis suggests that videos with a positive tone tend to appeal to YouTube viewers. Certainly, this is the case in the Embrace Life seatbelt video, which makes a deeply emotional appeal to the benefits of safety, rather than showing the consequences of failing to be safe. ARE DRIVERS GETTING THE MESSAGE? Although an in-depth investigation of the relationship between work zone safety messages and changes in driver behavior is beyond the scope of this synthesis report, it is important to recognize even in the absence of public information cam- paigns, that most drivers reduce their speeds somewhat when they are in work zones: • Table 13 summarizes some recent findings on potential voluntary speed reductions associated with various types of roadwork (Roadway Safety Consortium 2010). • As detailed in Table 1, a 2006 Kentucky study examined locations where freeways upstream of a work zone had 65 mph posted speed limits (Pigman et al. 2006). The actual speeds upstream were 68 to 72 mph (50th and 85th percentiles, respectively). After entering work zones posted at 55 mph, drivers typically reduced their speed by approximately 5 mph and travelled through the work FIGURE 47 A Swiss work zone public information website puts the emphasis on protecting the safety of individual workers (Wir arbeiten für Sie 2014). This is one of a series of images that display workers’ first names on overhead sign gantries (in this case Roger and Heiri/Harry). The tag line translates, “We work for you. Look out for our safety.” Work Zone Condition Potential Voluntary Speed Reduction* Work Zone Reduced Speed Limit Sign 0 to 3 mph Barrier Near Inside Travel Lane 0 to 3 mph Lane Encroachment 1 to 5 mph Lane Closure 1 to 7 mph Construction Vehicle Access/Egress Location 5 to 6 mph Temporary Crossover 4 to 9 mph Two-Lane, Two-Way Barrier Separated Traffic 7 to 9 mph Source: Roadway Safety Consortium (2010). * The speed reductions listed are based on a study conducted in Texas. Operating speeds upstream of the work zones ranged from 60 mph to 77 mph. TABLE 13 POTENTIAL VOLUNTARY SPEED REDUCTIONS FOR VARIOUS WORK ZONE CONDITIONS

73 To date, very little information has been published about the extent to which work zone PSAs influence driver behav- ior. In 2013, Saskatchewan conducted an online panel sur- vey as a follow-up to the highly publicized worker fatality described in Case Example 1. For those circumstances and that set of advertisements, among those who recalled seeing a work zone safety television ad or hearing a radio ad, 70% agreed that it had changed their driving behavior, as shown in Figure 48 (Insightrix 2013). DRIVER EDUCATION The driver manuals produced by state departments of motor vehicles (DMVs) currently vary in the extent to which they address work zone speed. For example, the New Mexico Driver Manual primarily focuses on the shape and color of work zone signs, along with a reminder not to park in construc- tion areas if it will block traffic (New Mexico MVD 2014). In addition to those items, Wisconsin’s Motorist Handbook instructs drivers to move over or slow down when approach- ing a construction vehicle (but does not specify how much speed reduction is expected). The Wisconsin manual also reminds drivers to avoid being distracted in work zones and to be alert for distracted workers (WisDOT 2014b). Califor- nia’s Driver Handbook addresses work zone safety in greater detail: “Reduce your speed and be prepared to slow down or stop for highway equipment. Merge as soon as it is safe to do so and without crossing the cones or drums. . . . Watch for work zone speed limit and reduced speed limit warning signs. . . . The most common cause of deaths and injuries in work zones is rear end collisions. . . . Do not stop or slow down to watch the road work. . . . Remember to ‘Slow for the Cone Zone’ ” (California DMV 2014). In 2005, FHWA, the American Road & Transportation Builders Association (ARTBA), the AAA Foundation for problem it is unlikely that attitudes will change. Indeed it may be that the targeted campaigns have inadvertently offered the excuse to many (who do not identify with the target group) that the problem lies with limited groups of drivers. Whilst . . . surveys support the view that some categories of driver are more likely to speed, and to have more serious crashes as a result, speeding is not restricted to such groups. An impor- tant message to get across is that we all speed, and we all cause increased risk as a result. Current campaigns to persuade drivers to observe speed lim- its seem to reinforce the view held by some drivers that they are able to speed safely as they do not identify with the drivers in the advertisements, even when targeted at drivers like themselves. Drivers in general feel that radio advertisements are more effective than TV, primarily because they listen to the radio whilst driving whereas TV adverts are remote from the driving task. Most transportation-related PSAs have a focused message such as “wear your seatbelt” or “drive sober.” Conversely, many work zone safety campaigns include five to six work zone driving safety messages, often compressed into a short (e.g., 30-second) time frame. For example, an Illinois DOT work zone safety website (IDOT 2014c) urges drivers to make the following “pledge”: • I won’t: – Text and drive – Talk on my phone in a work zone. • I will: – Obey posted work zone speed limits—24/7 – Pay attention to changing conditions when approach- ing a work zone – Be courteous to other motorists. Additional research may be necessary to determine the optimal number of messages to include in individual work zone PSAs. An example of a more focused message would be, “Take off 12: in work zones reduce your speed by twelve miles per hour.” FIGURE 48 Self-reported behavioral responses of Saskatchewan survey respondents who had seen or heard the province’s work zone safety PSAs (Insightrix 2013).

74 Canadian guidance on work zone speed management recommended that the following information be considered for inclusion in driver instruction manuals (Harmelink and Edwards 2005): • The importance of safety for both motorists and workers. • Explanation of orange warning signs for work activities on the road. • The depiction and description of the most important work zone signs and traffic control devices, such as cones, bar- rels, barriers, and barricades. • The need to slow down for work zones where indicated (by road work signs, by signs indicating the speed limit when workers are present, by signs indicating reduced speed when lights are flashing, and/or by PCMS). • The need to stop (or proceed slowly) as indicated by traffic control persons. • Recommended driver action when encountering mobile work operations. Harmelink and Edwards also note that “experienced drivers should be provided periodic summaries or updates of such information; for example, as inclusions in notices of their driver license renewal.” Traffic Safety, and the National Safety Council co-developed workzonedriver.org, a teen-oriented website titled Turning Point: Roadway Work Zone Safety for New Drivers. The web- site includes several resources for teens, parents, and driv- ing instructors; however, the centerpiece (an 11-minute video titled Turning Point: Some Decisions Last a Lifetime) cannot be viewed or downloaded from the site (the video is avail- able for purchase from ATRBA). As of July 2014 the website ranking service Alexa was unable to compute a ranking for workzonedriver.org, which is indicative of low traffic to the website (Alexa 2014). In 2008, Iowa DOT took an unconventional approach toward promoting teen driver work zone safety by sponsor- ing a new car giveaway. Teens who viewed a work zone safety video could register to win a 2008 Ford Fusion, with one winner selected at random. “Nearly 12,000 unique visi- tors logged on the site from August 2007 to March 2008, and more than 18,000 views of the safety video were recorded” according to an Iowa DOT press release. The DOT collabo- rated with a car dealership, a television station, and high schools to promote the contest (Bramble 2008; Fitzsimmons et al. 2009).