Interactions Between Transportation Capacity, Economic Systems, and Land Use (2012)

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8C h a p t e r 2 project types Project type is the single greatest differentiator among case studies, for different project types can have different attri- butes in terms of (a) cost, (b) spatial footprint, (c) volume of activity, and (d) performance characteristics. The most obvi- ous differences are between small-area projects, such as inter- changes and bridges, and large-area projects, such as major interstate highways. In between, there are various classes of beltways, town bypasses, and connector routes. For this study, projects were classified into 10 types repre- senting different functions, spatial footprints, and magnitudes of investment cost. The definitions adopted for purposes of this study are presented here. Case studies were selected to ensure a roughly even distribution of project types, dispersed among different settings and parts of the United States. The number of case studies completed for each project type is shown in Table 2.1. 1. Major highways are multilane roadways designed to handle high volumes of vehicles traveling at high speeds. Travel lanes in either direction are separated by distance or crash barriers. Limited-access highways typically are free of traf- fic lights and stop signs and accessible only via periodic on/ off ramps and interchanges with other limited-access high- ways. Such highways typically are built to provide access from outlying areas to or across metropolitan markets. Where they pass through rural areas, they do so primarily to connect metropolitan areas or to connect rural agricul- tural areas with metropolitan markets and intermodal ter- minals (such as airports, marine ports, or rail terminals), which often are located in metropolitan areas. 2. Beltways are circumferential highways (typically free- ways) typically built around the fringe of major cities. They often are designed to link satellite activity centers, which may include housing, retail, and major employers, outside the center of cities. 3. Connectors provide highway access between two major highways or a highway and an attraction, such as an air- port or employment center. 4. Bypasses are highway realignments that divert traffic flow around built-up towns or other urbanized areas to allow long-distance through traffic to avoid mixing with slower local traffic. An option to drive through the town center typically is maintained. Bypasses are designed to improve efficient traffic flow for long-distance travelers by keep- ing them away from areas with stop-and-go traffic and to increase safety by reducing the mixing of long-distance trucks with local pedestrians. 5. Bridges span natural environmental features, such as bod- ies of water and canyons, as well as constructed features, such as train tracks and other roadways. 6. Interchanges provide a connection between a limited- access highway and another road that intersects with it. Interchanges are essentially a single point, or points in each direction of connection, with no length at all. 7. Industrial access roads are built to provide access to new development sites, typically for industrial use. Some access roads support the development of a mix of employment-related uses, such as light industrial, office, and commercial activity; some support the development of new industrial or business parks; and others allow for the expansion of existing parks by providing access from a new direction. 8. Highway-widening projects increase highway capacity by adding lanes. They tend to be expensive, in part because they typically involve extensive right-of-way acquisition. 9. Intermodal freight terminals enable freight to be trans- ferred between modes. The cases in this study all involve the transfer of freight between truck and rail modes. 10. Intermodal passenger terminals enable passengers to trans- fer between modes. The cases in this study all transfer pas- sengers between car and rail transit modes. Classification of Project Types and Settings

9types of project Setting Project setting is defined as the geographic, social, and eco- nomic context in which a project is developed, which can have a major influence on the economic development outcomes of a project. Accordingly, the case study database has been struc- tured to allow users to search projects with comparable set- tings to their local area. Elements of project setting include: • Geographical setting. Projects in different parts of the coun- try may be influenced by regional differences in climate, topography, highway network density, and distances between cities. • Social setting. Impacts may vary with the density and socio- economic composition of an area, regardless of geographic setting. • Economic setting. Impacts of highway projects may vary with difference in underlying patterns of unemployment and economic growth or decline that are in effect at the time of project construction. For this study, quantitative information was collected for eight aspects of project setting; these are listed in Table 2.2. An effort was made to ensure that the selected case studies were representative of the full range of potential settings. To accomplish this, one key metric was selected as the primary indicator for each of the three major dimensions of project setting, and that metric was used in the screening and selec- tion process. Other metrics were designated as secondary ele- ments, and they are available for use as additional case study descriptors and search criteria. The identification of primary and secondary factors and ways that they can affect economic impact were drawn from research studies developed by the Appalachian Regional Commission and its contractors (1). Primary Setting Indicators Region An important consideration in determining the comparabil- ity of projects is the regional location. The region can affect the observed impact of a project because of differences in cli- mate, topography, land use patterns, highway network den- sity, and travel distances in different parts of the United States. This factor can thus help users compare cases in similar areas or those with characteristics similar to their own. The regions are based on those defined by the U.S. Department of Com- merce’s Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), which classifies the United States into eight regions. The number of regions used for this study was reduced to five because three pairs of regions were combined (Far West and Rocky Mountain, Great Lakes and Plains, and New England and Mid-Atlantic). These regions are shown in Figure 2.1. An effort was made to ensure a reasonable representation of all project types in each region; that distribution is shown in Table 2.3. Economic Market The economic market context of a project’s location can be an important impact factor because the size of the market served by a given project would be expected to influence the magni- tude of its economic impact. Market size is reflected in the metropolitan area concept as defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, and adopted by the U.S. Census Bureau. Every county that is part of an urban area with 50,000 or more inhabitants is classified as part of a “metropolitan area.” For this study, each highway-related project setting was classified by the county or group of counties in which the project was located. (Many of the highways covered in the case studies run through multiple counties.) If the project counties Table 2.1. Number of Cases by Project Type Project Type Total Cases Beltway 8 Bridge 10 Bypass 13 Connector 8 Interchange 12 Industrial access road 7 Major highway (limited-access route) 14 Widening 9 Freight intermodal terminal 10 Passenger intermodal terminal 9 Total 100 Table 2.2. Project Settings Setting Indicator Primary Secondary Geographical Setting Region X Topography X Social Setting Urban/rural X Population density X Transportation access X Economic Setting Economic distress X Economic growth X Local conditions X

10 were all classified as metropolitan, then the project setting was classified as “metro”; if the project counties included metro- politan and nonmetropolitan counties, then the project set- ting was classified as “mixed”; and if all the project counties were nonmetropolitan, then the project setting was classified as “rural.” An effort was made to ensure a mix of most project types represented in each class of county setting. (In some cases, it was not possible; for instance, urban beltways do not exist in rural areas.) The distribution is shown in Table 2.4. Economic Distress This measure can affect the timing and magnitude of economic impacts associated with a transportation project. Various agencies define economic distress on the basis of per capita income, unemployment, and/or percentage of population below the poverty line. However, this study specifically focused on unemployment because it is easy to obtain such figures, which are available at the community level from the U.S. Census Bureau. The economic distress metric used for this project is one of relative position, defined by the ratio of adjusted local unemployment level to that of the U.S. level. This helps to avoid distress classification changes associated with economic booms and downturns and thus allows before/after characterizations of economic conditions for projects that are started and com- pleted at different times. An effort was made to ensure a mix of most project types for each economic distress class, when pos- sible. The distribution is shown in Table 2.4. Figure 2.1. Number of cases by geographic region (total 100). Table 2.3. Distribution of Project Types Among Regions Project Type Great Lakes and Plains New England and Mid-Atlantic Far West and Rocky Mountain Southeast Southwest International Total by Type Access road 2 2 0 2 1 0 7 Beltway 2 1 1 2 2 0 8 Bridge 1 2 3 2 1 1 10 Bypass 4 1 3 2 1 2 13 Connector 1 1 2 3 1 0 8 Freight intermodal 2 2 1 3 2 0 10 Interchange 4 2 1 2 3 0 12 Highway 3 4 1 4 2 0 14 Passenger intermodal 2 1 3 2 1 0 9 Widening 1 1 2 3 2 0 9 Total 22 17 17 25 16 3 100

11 Secondary Setting Indicators The secondary indicators identified in Table 2.2 were not used in the selection of projects in the case study design, but information on them was collected. The information was used in the data analysis (reported in Chapter 6) and is avail- able in the T-PICS database (search and selection criteria) and described here. Topography The extent of mountain terrain, wetlands, and other land con- straints can potentially affect the nature of highway economic impacts. The U.S. Geological Survey (from the Department of Interior) has a rating of land surfaces by county from 1 (flat) to 21 (very mountainous). Population Density This indicator is related to metropolitan area classification, although it can sometimes be useful as a more detailed means of distinguishing high-density core counties in large metro- politan areas from lower-density outlying counties. Measures of population density are readily available at the county level from the U.S. Census Bureau. Transportation and Market Access Transportation projects can change access to intermodal (air, marine, or rail) facilities and the size of an area’s labor market and same-day truck delivery market. The effect can vary depending on the mix of industries in the affected area and their relative dependence on these elements of access. A direc- tory of intermodal transportation terminals is available from the U.S. Department of Transportation. Spatially detailed information on population and employment patterns is available from the U.S. Census Bureau. These data sets, used in conjunction with highway network and geographic infor- mation systems (GISs), allow measurement of current access times to intermodal terminals as well as commuter and deliv- ery sheds. They can be directly calculated using the online Esri GIS system. However, to calculate how these indicators have changed over time, it would be necessary to obtain historical highway network models, and they are not widely available. Economic Growth Trend An area’s economic growth is an indicator of how its indus- tries have been performing. In some cases, an area with a higher growth trend may tend to be better positioned to take advantage of new highway connections or capacity or more in need of such improvements. Economic growth can be mea- sured in terms of percentage change in any economic measure (output, value added, income, or employment) for any time interval. The percentage change in employment was used in this study because it offers the cleanest measure for compari- son; all other measures are in dollars and therefore subject to inflationary adjustments that vary over time. Employment data are available through the U.S. Department of Com- merce’s Census Bureau and Bureau of Economic Analysis. Local Conditions: Development Capacity For business and population to expand, there must be adequate land and utilities. This includes access to water and sewer lines, electricity, and zoning laws. However, these do not have stan- dardized measures that allow for easy comparison; such infor- mation is best gathered through local research and interviews. Because such data may not be readily available to users of the system, they cannot be used for screening potential case studies. Nonetheless, the data are reflected in the case study narratives and can be used to complement quantifiable measures. reference 1. Economic Development Research Group, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Regional Technology Strategies. Sources of Regional Growth in Non-Metro Appalachia. 3 vols. Prepared for the Appalachian Regional Commission, Washington, D.C., 2007. Table 2.4. Project Types and Settings Project Type Economic Market Setting Economic Distress Metro Rural Mixed High Even Low Access road 2 5 0 2 2 3 Beltway 8 0 0 2 3 3 Bridge 4 3 3 0 8 2 Bypass 4 8 1 6 2 4 Connector 4 2 2 3 0 5 Interchange 10 0 2 6 2 4 Major highway 5 0 9 3 5 6 Widening 4 2 3 1 3 5 Intermodal 15 15 15 5 11 3 Total 56 23 21 28 36 35