Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook (2003)

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Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 19 CHAPTER 3. Applicable Technologies Technology Summaries/Specifications/Capabilities/Costs This chapter outlines the various Intrusion Detection and Access Control System hardware and software devices or applications that a transit system might consider as part of a security program. For each of the following sections, where applicable, a brief discussion of the overall technology surrounding the device or application is provided, followed by a brief discussion of how it might be best applied as part of a security solution. Additional paragraphs provide discussions of system costs and other significant factors. Throughout this chapter, where appropriate, tables have been included to provide a clear list of devices or applications for review and comparison. 3.1 FENCING SYSTEMS Fencing systems are utilized for the following functions: 1. Boundary definition 2. Aid in control of screening and entry for access control 3. Support security detection and assessment 4. Deter casual intruders 5. Causes an intruder to perform an overt act that demonstrates intent 6. Briefly delays intruder 3.1.1 Technology There are many types of fencing systems. Some are designed primarily for temporary installation for short-term events and others are designed for longer-term, permanent installation. Frequently, a combination of the two types will best suit a particular facility's security needs. Key factors in fence selection are material construction (plastic, aluminum, steel); fence design (woven or welded-mesh, straight or ornamental-shaped metal bars); fence height (usually 3 to 12-feet, sometimes higher); and installation method (posts driven into ground, poured into concrete, or welded panels). While these factors are the most common, there are almost as many installation methods as there are types of fencing systems. Obviously the key to an effective fencing system is choosing the right type of fence to meet the system requirements. Tables 5 and 6 provide a reference to available technologies and systems. Columns are as follows: x Fencing System – A list of the types of fencing systems available x System Description – A short description of the fencing system x System Utilization – The application of the fencing system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the fencing system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the fencing system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 5 - Fencing Systems Fencing Systems System Description System Utilization Standard Chain Link ("cyclone") Fencing Standard galvanized steel Chain Link fencing as used in numerous instances to provide a low to medium level of security at reasonable cost To provide temporary or permanent perimeter definition around large or small facilities, buildings or exclusion zones Woven Wire Mesh Fencing Woven wire-mesh is similar to chain-link but has varying sizes of mesh and different colors and coatings To provide temporary or permanent perimeter definition around large or small facilities, buildings or exclusion zones Welded-Wire Fencing Welded-wire is welded at every joint or wire-crossing. The varied-size mesh is usually rectangular or square in shape. Mesh openings can be made too small to offer a toehold or handgrip To provide temporary or permanent perimeter definition around large or small facilities, buildings or exclusion zones Rotating Sectional Top "Spikes" Rotating sections (usually 3 to 4-feet in length) of sharp, "spiked" devices mounted horizontally along the top of fence segments Presents a serious puncture hazard to anyone attempting to climb over the top of a fence segment Barbed-Wire (top and/or side mounted) Standard style of barbed wire that is placed in single-strand, multi-strand, or coil along the top and/or side of a vertical barrier (wall or fence). Coils can also be stretched or stacked along the ground Used to complement existing barriers, and to preclude scaling through use of sharp barbs. Used on the ground, provides a effective barrier to all but experienced professionals Razor-Wire (top and/or side mounted) Coil style of barbed wire produced by cutting and bending flat sheets of metal. Stored as round compressed stacks. Placed in single-coil or multi-coil on the top and/or side of a vertical barrier (wall or fence). Coils can also be stretched or stacked along the ground Used to complement existing barriers, and to preclude scaling through use of sharp razor-shaped edges. Used on the ground, provides a effective barrier to all but experienced professionals Induced pulse (electrical) fencing Multi-wire electrical fencing providing a high-voltage but short-duration (~1-sec) electrical "pulse" Best used to meet "high-security" requirements in authorized localities. Provides a sharp but safe electrical jolt. Ornamental Fence Hot-dipped galvanized steel, wrought iron or aluminum "bars" Designed to provide low to medium security while maintaining aesthetic value Temporary Fences Chain-link fencing, coiled or stretched barbed wire, coiled or stretched razor wire, "hedge hog" obstructers, etc. Deployed for short or longer-term "temporary use" to restrict vehicle or foot traffic

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 6 - Fencing System Strengths and Weaknesses Fencing Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Standard Chain Link ("cyclone") Fencing Low to medium cost, normally requires little to no maintenance, easily configured to meet almost any size or shape requirements Easily cut with bolt cutters or strong shears, can be easily scaled, and must be "framed" top, bottom and vertically at points along its length to provide adequate security Woven Wire Mesh Fencing Medium cost, normally requires little to no maintenance, easily configured to meet almost any size or shape requirements Easily cut with bolt cutters or strong shears, can be scaled, and must be "framed" top, bottom and along its length to provide adequate security Welded-Wire Fencing Medium to higher cost, normally requires little to no maintenance, easily configured to meet almost any size or shape requirements While easily cut with bolt cutters or strong shears, requires many cuts to actually create an opening. Smaller mesh makes scaling difficult. Must be "framed" top, bottom and along its length to provide adequate security Rotating Sectional Top "Spikes" Provides a strong physical and psychological barrier to all but experienced professionals. Not permitted in some jurisdictions and may open user to potential liability and/or litigation Barbed-Wire (top and/or side mounted) Provides a strong physical and psychological barrier to all but experienced professionals. Easily deployed in long coils for temporary security use Can be easily cut with proper tools and solitude. Protective clothing is required for deployment, attachment, or anchoring to barriers or the ground Razor-Wire (top and/or side mounted) Provides a strong physical and psychological barrier to all but experienced professionals. Easily deployed in long coils for temporary security use. Higher security than standard barbed wire. Can be cut with proper tools and solitude. Protective clothing is required for deployment, attachment, or anchoring to barriers or the ground Induced pulse (electrical) fencing Provides effective physical and psychological barrier for potential intruders, and can be combined with additional sensors Not permitted in some jurisdictions and may open user to potential liability and/or litigation Ornamental Fence Unobtrusive, looks good, avoids too much of a "security" appearance May provide minimal level of security if appearance over function is stressed Temporary Fences Low cost, rapidly deployed, easily configured for wide variety of requirements Offers limited protection, and may require protective clothing to deploy

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 22 3.1.2 Applications Temporary fences are usually less secure, while permanent fences will frequently include tamper-proof hardware as part of their installation. Larger mesh sizes make it easier to cut or to get a toe- or finger-hold (making them easier to climb), while smaller mesh sizes are harder to climb and more time-consuming to cut. The heavier the gauge of metal wire used in the mesh, the harder it is to cut and the longer it will last. Some combination fence systems are actually part-wall and part-fence, with the lower part of the system made of steel or concrete, with the top portion actually being "fence". This type of fencing system has the added benefit of providing some degree of "barrier" protection if properly anchored to the ground. 3.1.3 Costs Fencing System characteristics are only part of the information needed for the choice of an appropriate system. In addition, implementation, maintenance, training, and life expectancy must be included in the selection criteria. The following table provides a summary of costs. Please note that even though materials costs are similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the tables. Each authority will need to include this factor in implementation and support of the deployed systems. Table 7 provides a reference to rough systems costs. x Fencing System – List of Fencing System types x Cost of Implementation – Cost of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – Operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – Expressed as one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – Estimated system life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 23 Table 7 - Fencing Systems Technologies Cost Matrix System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Standard Chain Link ("cyclone") Fencing $20 to $25 per linear foot installed Varies greatly with region and amount required Normally less than 5% Minimal maintenance required 0% No training required 25+ years Woven Wire Mesh Fencing $25 to $45 per linear foot installed Varies greatly with region and amount required Normally less than 5% Minimal maintenance required 0% No training required 25+ years Welded- Wire Fencing $25 to $45 per linear foot installed Varies greatly with region and amount required Normally less than 5% Minimal maintenance required 0% No training required 25+ years Rotating Sectional Top "Spikes" $8 to $12 per 4- 5-foot section installed Varies greatly with region and amount required Normally less than 5% Basic maintenance and upkeep required Less than 5% Minimal training required 10+ years Barbed- Wire (top and/or side mounted) $2 to $3 per linear foot installed Varies with type, style, and amount required Normally less than 5% Minimal maintenance required Less than 5% Minimal training required 10+ years Razor-Wire (top and/or side mounted) $3.50 to $ 5 per linear foot installed Varies with type, style, and amount required Normally less than 5% Minimal maintenance required Less than 5% Minimal training required 10+ years Induced pulse (electrical) fencing (not always permitted by law in some localities) $45-plus per linear foot installed Varies greatly with region and amount required 5% Basic maintenance and upkeep required Less than 5% Minimal training required 15+ years Ornamental Fence $50-plus per linear foot installed Varies greatly with region and amount required 5 to 10% Basic maintenance and upkeep required 0% No training required 20+ years Temporary Fences $5-10per linear foot installed, per 3 to 6-month rental Varies greatly with region and amount required 5 to 15% Basic maintenance and upkeep required Less than 5% Minimal training required 10+ years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 24 3.1.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of a fencing system. These include, but are not limited to the following: x Requirement for fencing system type - should it be basic chain-link ("cyclone") fencing or is a higher-security welded-wire mesh type of fence required? Is the fence to merely guide pedestrian traffic or is it to inhibit (or preclude) entry into designated areas? Does the fence need to preclude visibility through the fence? x Installation plans - is the installation temporary or permanent, and who will do the installation, and when? How much fencing will be required and what areas or zones will require fencing? Are any special styles, materials or colors required? Plastic strips are available in many colors to weave into the mesh. Some wire-mesh fence systems are available with a colored plastic coating. Should the fencing have top-mounted barbed or razor wire, or a special device (e.g. spikes)? Do surveillance cameras have a clear view of the fence? x Local ordinances - codes may require or preclude certain types of fencing systems - for example, unprotected electrified fences are not permitted in many localities 3.2 BARRIER SYSTEMS 3.2.1 Technology There are many types of barrier systems. Some barriers are used to guide pedestrian traffic flow, or are specifically designed to block smaller objects of certain sizes, such as the safety barriers (bollards) that stop large luggage from being taken or pulled onto powered walkways or escalators. For the purpose of this document, the barriers being addressed are primarily designed to preclude physical entry into a designated security zone by vehicles. Most barriers used in this type of security applications are designed to withstand the damaging forces caused by hitting or ramming the barrier with a vehicle. In some cases, these barriers will withstand the extreme force of a large loaded truck moving at speed of over 50 mph. The key to an effective barrier system is choosing the right type of barrier to meet the facility's specific security requirements. Tables 8 and 9 provide a reference to available technologies and systems. Columns are as follows: x Barrier System – A list of the types of barrier systems available x System Description – A short description of the barrier system x System Utilization – The application of the barrier system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the barrier system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the barrier system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 8 - Barrier Systems Barrier Systems System Description System Utilization Fixed Installation Barriers Steel or concrete framed or reinforced earthen barriers Simple steel and concrete framework backfilled with soil, and topped with sod Best used in open areas with plenty of space and when cost is an issue. Can be used to "route" or "direct" vehicle or pedestrian traffic Plastic (water- filled) or steel-reinforced concrete ("Jersey barrier") Simple molded plastic (filled with water) or steel-reinforced concrete barrier available in various styles, lengths, shapes and colors Placed as protective barriers where needed. Can be arranged end-to- end, side-by-side, or even stacked for increased security. Can be used to "route" or "direct" vehicle or pedestrian traffic Planter-styled security barriers Steel reinforced concrete "shell" that is backfilled with soil for added protective weight Prevents vehicle intrusion. Protects walkways, fences, guard booths, important equipment and prevents driving around other barriers. Can be used to "route" or "direct" vehicle or pedestrian traffic Steel "impaler-style" barriers Designed to roll backward upon impact, impaling the vehicle on the underside, subsequently acting as an extreme friction anchor. 42-inches high and available in 10- or 12-foot lengths Placed wherever needed, installed slightly below grade, and backfilled in-place with concrete. Barriers can be interconnected for extended lengths Concrete or metal bollards Vertically installed metal (preferably steel) "crash tube" with the lower base extending into the ground, and constructed of solid steel, or hollow tube filled with reinforced concrete. In use in numerous military and commercial applications Inhibits vehicle intrusion. Protects walkways, fences, guard booths, important equipment and prevents driving around other barriers. Bollards come in several security levels and are usually installed in linear arrays. Can be used to "route" or "direct" vehicle or pedestrian traffic. Frequently adorned with warning lights Permanently installed concrete, cinder/concrete block, or brick wall-type barriers A vertically constructed and installed reinforced concrete, cinder/concrete block, or brick wall of a specified height, thickness and material to meet a specified level of security Installed around a security zone or high-value asset requiring protection Deployable Barriers Permanently installed "recessed-mounted" (in- ground) ramp-style vehicle barriers with chain reinforcements A rugged 5- to 24-foot wide steel ramp raised at an approximate 27-degree angle, with a forward edge-height of approximately 3 feet. The leading, raised edge of the ramp impacts an intruding vehicle, completely stopping and/or destroying the vehicle. These ramp systems weigh between 2,500 to 12,000-pounds and are installed flush-mounted in the surface of the road Upon impact, completely stops and/or disables the unauthorized vehicle. The ramp barrier system is raised or lowered either manually or automatically (based on access being granted) through use of computer-controlled electrical or hydraulic systems. Temporary or permanently installed "surface-mounted" ramp-style vehicle barriers with chain reinforcements A rugged 5- to 24-foot wide steel ramp raised at an approximate 27-degree angle, with a forward edge-height of approximately 3 feet. The leading, raised edge of the ramp impacts an intruding vehicle, completely stopping and/or destroying the vehicle. These ramp systems weigh between 2,500 to 12,000-pounds and are installed on the top surface of the road Upon impact, completely stops and/or disables the unauthorized vehicle. The ramp barrier system is raised or lowered either manually or automatically (based on access being granted) through use of computer-controlled electrical or hydraulic systems. Hydraulically Deployable metal bollards Subsurface vertically installed metal "crash tube". In unsecured position devices are flush with surface, once deployed part of tube is above surface with the lower part extending into the ground. Constructed of solid tubular steel, can be filled for added strength. In use in numerous military and commercial applications Inhibits vehicle intrusion. Protects walkways, fences, guard booths, important equipment and prevents driving around other barriers. Bollards come in several security levels and are usually installed in linear arrays. Can be used to "route" or "direct" vehicle or pedestrian traffic. Traffic Controllers ("Tire Teeth") Approximate 1 inch wide by 4 inch long teeth are used to cut / shred vehicle tire. Metal teeth that are either spring mounted to allow safe one way travel or retractable to allow two way travel. Prevention of wrong way traffic flow (parking applications) and deployable to flatten tires if vehicles cross security access point.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 9 - Barrier Systems Strengths and Weaknesses Barrier Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Fixed Installation Barriers Steel or concrete framed or reinforced earthen barriers Maximum protection at lowest cost, if the required space is available Requires some lawn maintenance if earthen section is planted with sod or hedges Plastic (water- filled) or steel-reinforced concrete ("Jersey barrier") Highly configurable and effective protection at low to moderate cost and very low maintenance. Empty water-filled units weigh less than 200-pounds, are easy to transport, and come in a variety of colors Plastic water-filled versions do require water source and drainage area, water freezing problems in cold weather. Concrete versions are heavy and require substantial forklift or crane for proper placement. For maximum protection barriers need to be physically attached to mounting surface. Planter-styled security barriers Aesthetically tailored with unlimited number of sizes, styles, and finishes. Large, heavy, and difficult to relocate once filled with soil. Soil removal is time consuming Steel "impaler-style" barriers Easily installed, not very heavy or hard to move until back-filled with concrete. Multiple units can be connected for extended barrier lengths May need to be replaced, or reinstalled, after actual use. Still allows target vehicle to travel short distance into security zone. May cause vehicle fire or injury to occupant Concrete or metal bollards Very effective solution. Can stop and/or destroy 15,000-pound (GVW) vehicles moving up at speeds up to 50 MPH. Inexpensive to install and maintain using local materials and experience. Aesthetically tailored with unlimited number of sizes, styles and finishes. Outer aesthetic covering can become damaged and need to be replaced. Facility may require engineering analysis to ensure robust design for specific needs. Permanently installed concrete, cinder/concrete block, or brick wall-type barriers Easily installed by any construction firm and provides a clear line of demarcation. Actual wall construction material, thickness and height can be selected to meet any facility requirement or security level Permanent installation - cannot be easily relocated. Possible high cost is dependent on security level. Facility may require engineering analysis to ensure robust design for specific needs. Deployable Barriers Permanently installed "recessed-mounted" (in- ground) ramp-style vehicle barriers with chain reinforcements Assigned various government certifications (e.g. K12, L2) to stop and/or destroy vehicles ranging up to 20,000 pounds (GVW) moving at speeds up to 70 MPH. When in the lowered position, the barrier is flush with the roadway. One of the most effective barriers on the market. Rises in 2-seconds and is usually operational even after actual vehicle impact Requires modification to ground surface for installation. May need to be replaced, or merely reinstalled, after actual use - dependent on speed and weight of vehicle stopped or destroyed. Still allows target vehicle to travel short distance into security zone. May cause injury to occupant or vehicle fire Temporary or permanently installed "surface-mounted" ramp- style vehicle barriers with chain reinforcements Assigned various government certifications (e.g. K12, L2) to stop and/or destroy vehicles ranging up to 20,000 pounds (GVW) moving at speeds up to 70 MPH. When in the lowered position, the barrier is nearly flush with the roadway. One of the most effective barriers on the market. Rises in seconds and is usually operational even after actual vehicle impact May need to be replaced, or merely reinstalled, after actual use - dependent on speed and weight of vehicle stopped or destroyed. Still allows target vehicle to travel short distance into security zone. May cause vehicle fire or injury to occupant Hydraulically deployable metal bollards Very effective solution. Controlled by security system for security reconfiguration as desired. Aesthetically tailored with many styles and finishes. Deployable / retractable model more complex and expensive. Damage problems from accidental deployment. Traffic Controllers ("Tire Teeth") Common systems in parking lot applications. Easily installed by construction companies. Numerous vendors and supplies. Inadvertent tire damage from vehicles backing up or traveling in the wrong direction.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 27 3.2.2 Applications While the numerous types of Barrier Systems allow them to be applied in many ways, they are primarily used in a security role to block entrance to an area by vehicles. They can be placed at a facility's gates or entrances (vehicle "checkpoints") to stop intruding vehicles; around security guard booths; between designated parking areas and buildings; around high-value facilities or assets; or placed as a protective barrier around temporary events. Barriers can be manned (such as those in use at pedestrian or vehicle gates) or unmanned, such as traffic controllers ("tire teeth"). The applications are as varied as the systems and can be combined to provide an even more effective Barrier System. 3.2.3 Costs Barrier System characteristics are only part of the information required to choose an appropriate system. In addition implementation, maintenance, training, and life expectancy must be included in the selection criteria. The following table provides a summary of costs. Please note that even though materials costs are similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the table. Each authority will need to include this factor in implementation and support of the deployed systems. Table 10 provides a reference to rough systems costs. x Barrier System – List of Barrier System types x Cost of Implementation – Cost of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – Operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – Expressed as one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – Estimated system life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 28 Table 10 - Barrier Systems Cost Matrix System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Fixed Barriers Steel or concrete- framed or reinforced earthen barriers $40 a cubic yard and up Requires construction contractor Less than 5% Low cost to maintain 0% No training required 30+ years Plastic (water-filled) or steel-reinforced concrete ("Jersey barrier") $100 to $500 each Requires equipment for placement Less than 5% Low cost to maintain 0% No training required 20+ years Planter-styled security barriers $500 to $1K Requires equipment for placement Less than 5% Low cost to maintain 0% No training required 20+ years Steel "impaler-style" barriers $100 to $150 a linear foot Requires equipment for placement Less than 5% Low cost to maintain 0% No training required 15+ years Concrete or metal bollards $100 to $500 each Requires construction contractor Less than 5% Low cost to maintain 0% No training required 15+ years Permanently installed concrete, cinder/concrete block, or brick wall-type barriers $4 a square foot and up Requires construction contractor Less than 5% Regular "wall" - low cost to maintain 0% No training required 30+ years Deployable Barriers Permanently installed "recessed-mounted" (in- ground) ramp-style vehicle barriers with chain reinforcements $25k to $50K each Permanently installed 5 to 10% Requires some work - mostly cleaning & lubrication 10% Minimal training required to operate 15+ years Temporary or permanently installed "surface-mounted" ramp-style vehicle barriers with chain reinforcements $10K to $25K each Temporary or permanently installed 5 to 10% Requires some work - mostly cleaning & lubrication 10% Minimal training required to operate 15+ years Hydraulically deployable metal bollards $15K to $40K for set of 4 or more Permanently installed 5 to 10% Requires some work - mostly cleaning & lubrication 5% Minimal training required to operate 20+ years Traffic Controllers ("Tire Teeth") either permanently installed or "pull-out" for emergency use to stop vehicle $2K to $15K each Permanently installed or quickly deployed Less than 5% Low cost to maintain 5% Minimal training required to operate 10+ years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 29 3.2.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of a barrier system. These include, but are not limited to the following: x Requirement for barrier system type - will it be used to guide pedestrian and vehicle flow or to preclude vehicle intrusion into a restricted zone or area? x Installation plans - heavy equipment is usually needed for the placement of temporary barriers, while excavation and/or construction is usually required for permanent installation of larger systems x Required number and placement - how many of the barrier system units will be required and how will they be arranged or spaced? x Aesthetic requirements for barrier system - are special styles, shapes, sizes, colors, or textures required? x Local codes - may require or preclude certain types of barrier systems 3.3 LIGHTING SYSTEMS 3.3.1 Technology Lighting systems are installed to provide illumination of protected areas. This illumination increases the sensitivity of intrusion detection surveillance by technology and personnel. In addition, lighting provides deterrence to intruders by shedding light on suspicious activity and helps prevent covert access to restricted and protected areas. Tables 11 and 12 provide a reference to available technologies and systems. Columns are as follows: x Lighting System – A list of the types of lighting systems available x System Description – A short description of the lighting system x System Utilization – The application of the lighting system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the lighting system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the lighting system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 11 - Lighting Systems Lighting Systems System Description System Utilization Incandescent Oldest most common light source. Light emitted from current flow through tungsten filament. Current heats filament to produce visible light General Lighting Tungsten Halogen New type of incandescent with gas filled bulb and inner coating to reflect heat. Reflected heat increases efficiency Commercial, highlighting Reflector Lamps Incandescent lights with reflectors to focus light in desired patterns Flood lighting, spot lights, down lighting - parabolic and ellipsoidal Fluorescent "Tube" lights, mercury and inert gas in tube is energized to produce UV light, UV light strikes phosphor on tube interior to emit visible light Work space and area lighting Compact Fluorescent Fluorescent "Bulb" light design into standard bulb shape Design as direct replacement to incandescent lights Solid State Light Emitting Diode (LED) Solid State semiconductor device that emits various color lights with current flow Replacement for incandescent lighting, currently mostly used for panel lighting and traffic lights Solid State Infrared (IR) LED Solid State semiconductor device that emits various color lights with current flow Provide IR illumination for CCTV systems High Intensity Discharge (HID) Light technology including Mercury Vapor, Metal Halide, and High Pressure Sodium, high intensity discharge between two electrodes creates light Street lights, gyms, area lighting, security lighting Mercury Vapor Uses mercury vapor as conductor Street lights, gyms, area lighting Metal Halide Metal Halide conductor Street lights, stadiums, area lighting, security lighting High Pressure Sodium High pressure sodium conductor Street lights, stadiums, area lighting, security lighting Low Pressure Sodium Similar to fluorescent lights with low pressure sodium Highway & Security Lighting Sulfur New Product - Sulfur enclosed in sealed bulb bombarded with microwave energy Area, work areas, security lighting

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 12 - Lighting Systems Strengths and Weaknesses Lighting Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Standard Incandescent Inexpensive to buy, readily available, instant on, easy to replace, warm color Very inefficient 20 or less lumens per watt, short life span 800 hours, runs very hot, long life bulb (thicker filaments) are even lower efficiencies, Not shock or vibration resistant Tungsten Halogen Desirable color renditions, more efficient that standard incandescent, instant on, warm color Considerably more expensive than standard incandescent, lower efficiencies than other lighting Reflector Lamps Inexpensive and readily available, instant on, easy to replace, warm color, increase efficiency by "focus" of available light Incandescent - high heat, inefficient, short lifetime Fluorescent 3 to 4 time as efficient (75 lumen per watt) as incandescent lighting, 10 time longer life (10,000 hours) Delayed start up, require ballast to operate, contain toxic chemicals (mercury & phosphor), cool light, potential cold weather performance problems Compact Fluorescent Same as Fluorescent (Higher efficiency and longer life) with ability to replace Incandescent, integrated ballast Same as Fluorescent, 10 times the cost of incandescent bulb replaced Solid State Light Emitting Diode (LED) Extra Long life (100,000 hours), efficient (25 lumens per watt - dependant on color), runs cool, instant on, available in all viable colors, very shock resistant Expensive (100 times Incandescent), not available in high light output, whites and blue color higher cost than standard red Solid State Infrared (IR) LED Invisible to naked eye, efficient, run cool, instant on Expensive, low light out, large matrix of LED required for flood or zone lighting High Intensity Discharge (HID) Save 75 to 90 lumens per watt energy consumption compared to incandescent Not instant on, restart /start time may pose security problem Mercury Vapor 50 lumens per watt, 24,000 hour life Older technology now replaced by metal halide or high pressure sodium, very cool blue / green light, very slow start up Metal Halide Better color than Mercury Vapor, 75 lumens per watt, good for CCTV color Slow start up and restart after power failure High Pressure Sodium 90 lumens per watt, 24,000 hour life Slow start up and restart after power failure Low Pressure Sodium Very efficient (100 lumens per watt), long life (16,000 hours) Poor yellow / gray light color, poor CCTV color rendition Sulfur Very Efficient (over 100 lumens per watt), long life 60,000 hours (no filament) New technology not widely available, currently used in experimental locations, not available in low output sizes

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 32 3.3.2 Applications Lighting technologies provide a means for application of lighting. Table 13 provides insight into different applications of lighting and follows the same description, utilization, strengths, and weaknesses format of the technology tables. Table 13 - Lighting System Applications Type of Lighting Recommended Lighting Systems System Description System Utilization System Strengths System Weaknesses Lighting Applications Wide-Area Lighting Metal Halide Sodium (High & Low Pressure) Sulfur Designed to provide lighting to a wide area of coverage Large parking areas, fields, long lengths of roads, streets, or highways Provides non- intrusive "general" lighting over a very large area, low cost Some lighting "bleed- over" into areas that may not need or desire lighting Spot / Zone Lighting Standard Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Reflector Lamps Fluorescent Designed to provide lighting to a specific area or zone Security gate areas or zones around high- value assets Provides dedicated lighting for special requirements, low cost If not properly used, could be used by threat concern to identify high value areas Mobile Lighting Standard Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Reflector Lamps LED Fluorescent Transportable design to provide lighting to areas where needed and when needed Temporary work-sites, temporary security gates or security checkpoints Provides substantial lighting at remote or non- powered sites for extended periods Usually trailer- mounted and generator powered. Must be moved with vehicle CCTV Illumination Standard Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Reflector Lamps IR LED Metal Halide Designed specifically to provide support lighting for use of closed-circuit camera systems Surveillance camera fields of view (IR lighting for "no light" or "blackout" conditions") Provides lighting in lowest-light ("no-light") conditions Specialized lighting, IR lighting can be seen with special detection equipment High- Intensity Spot Lighting (fixed) Incandescent Tungsten Halogen Reflector Lamps Designed to provide high- intensity lighting for a specific area or zone ("spot") Bridges, guard towers, security gates Very powerful and controllable lighting to meet emergency spot- lighting requirements May need mounting atop buildings, gates or guard towers, higher cost High- Intensity Spot Lighting (hand- held) Tungsten Halogen Designed to provide hand-held high-intensity lighting beyond that of a typical "flashlight" Security personnel, vehicles, vessels or first- responders Very portable, up to 6-million candlepower, 1- to-40-degree adjustable beam-width, debilitating strobe light feature Requires carrying a belt-mounted rechargeable battery pack. Can be damaged if not properly handled or used

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 33 3.3.3 Costs Lighting System characteristics are only part of the information required to choose an appropriate system. In addition, implementation, maintenance, training, and life expectancy must be included in the selection criteria. The following table provides a summary of costs. Please note that even though materials costs are similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the tables. In addition, electric rates vary by a factor of 3 times. Each authority will need to include these factors in implementation and support of the deployed systems. Table 14 provides a reference to rough systems costs. x Lighting System – A list of the types of lighting system x Cost of Implementation – Rough range of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – including operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – extra or special training expressed as a one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – System life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 34 Table 14 - Lighting Technologies Cost Matrix System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Standard Incandescent $100 to $1K per fixture Inexpensive and easy to install, labor largest part of cost 40-50% Very high costs for electric power. Inexpensive Lamps & easy to replace 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 800 hours Tungsten Halogen $100 to $1K per fixture Installation the same as Incandescent with 10-20X Lamp cost 35-45% Specialty lighting normally not for security 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20 to 25 years. Light Lamp - 2-10K hours Reflector Lamps $100 to $1K per fixture Addition of reflector to Incandescent 40-50% Same as incandescent 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 800 hours Fluorescent $100 to $1K per fixture Location & temperature contribute to wide cost variations 10-30% Ballast may need replacement before end of system life 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 10K hours Compact Fluorescent $6 to $15 a lamp Normally used to replace incandescent lamps 15-35% Ballast replaced with "Lamp" 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 10K hours Solid State Light Emitting Diode (LED) $100 & up - low watts $20 & up Replacement for incandescent lamps 15-35% Electrical and Cleaning costs only, excellent for difficult access area 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 100K hours Solid State Infrared (IR) LED $350 for system, $100 & up for mounting Provide "invisible" illumination for cameras 15-35% Electrical and Cleaning costs only 25 Need education on "invisible" light system and test unit Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 100K hours Mercury Vapor - Obsolete System / Technology for new systems - - 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 24K hours Metal Halide $1-5K per fixture Cost vary widely by system size & utility work required 15-25% Electrical costs & lamp replacement 1 to 3 years 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 12- 24K hours High Pressure Sodium $1-5K per fixture Cost vary widely by system size & utility work required 15-25% Electrical costs & lamp replacement 1 to 3 years 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 24K hours Low Pressure Sodium $1-5K per fixture Cost vary widely by system size & utility work required 10-20% Electrical costs & lamps replacement 1 to 3 years 0 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 16K hours Sulfur $100K-300K per installation Experimental System for large areas - Experimental System 1 No training, Standard Electrician can maintain system Infrastructure 20+ years. Lamp - 60K hours

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 35 3.3.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of a lighting system. These include, but are not limited to the following: x Power supply and power supply reliability x Lamp re-strike and warm up time in the event of loss of power (see Table 15) x Coordination of design with Video System x Light pollution – some locations and neighborhoods may object to security lighting and to illumination of adjacent areas x Light spectrum – some location may object to the light spectrum of the chosen solution (objections to the ‘color’ of the lighting) x Environmental – some locations require use of certain lighting types for increased energy efficiency; this may contribute to poor performance for CCTV applications x Visible versus Invisible lighting – visible lighting provides a deterrence to intrusion, but some applications and operational requirements may require covert lighting Table 15- Lamp Re-strike Times Lamp Type Re-strike Time Incandescent Real Time Tungsten halogen Real Time Mercury Vapor 3 to 7 minutes Fluorescent Sub minute Metal Halide Up to 15 minutes High Pressure Sodium 1 minute re-strike, 3 to 4 minute warm up Low Pressure Sodium 7 to 15 minutes 3.4 VIDEO SYSTEMS 3.4.1 Technology Video systems provide a method to remotely monitor and assess security areas. Application of a video system is part of the overall design of the IDS. System vendors and technical expertise can provide additional and equipment specific application data. In addition, TCRP has published a report on transit video surveillance (TCRP Synthesis 38: Electronic Surveillance Technology on Transit Vehicles) that can provide information on the more complex issues of storing/archiving video data and transmitting it to another location (this information is outside of the scope of this Handbook). Some generic guidelines are provided here to help focus the application of the technologies that are described in the next section. x For new installations, Lighting and Video Systems should be designed concurrently x For existing lighting, the Video Systems can be designed to existing lighting or lighting can be updated

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 36 x Visible versus invisible – an assessment of what lighting is available and deployable will help determine the type of video imaging systems. Some factors include stealth and light effects on neighbors. x Unless stealth is desired, a minimum illumination of 2 foot-candles throughout assessment area should be maintained. Avoid high contrast ratios to prevent video blooming. x Cameras are primarily used to assess IDS zone and can be one camera per zone, one camera per many zones, and, in some instances, multiple cameras per single zone. If costs allow, all IDS zones should have video assessment available and automatically be called up (activated) upon alarm. This allows quick assessment and response to IDS alarms. x Set field of view (FOV) by optimal selection of camera image format size, lens focal length, and zoom setting if applicable x Use lens, zoom, and terrain conditions when setting and selecting camera locations x Be aware of rising and setting sun when setting camera alignment x Mount cameras at safe height to prevent damage and provide good field of view. Also if possible, mount cameras inside secure areas and provide tamper protection if the camera is subject to tamper. x Firm mounting masts are required to prevent motion by wind or pan / tilt unit movement. This is particularly important for higher power lens used for looking longer distances. x Provide appropriate camera housings for worst-case environmental conditions – outdoor, cold, hazardous conditions, etc. 3.4.2 Applications Video systems are installed to provide visual assessment of protected areas and thus improve security. In conjunction with proper lighting, video systems provide deterrence to intruders by allowing viewing of suspicious activities and increase security force efficiency by allowing quick assessment of intrusion alarms. An added capability is the recording of video signals that can aid in post incident analysis and legal action. Tables 16 - 19 provides a summary of available technologies and systems. Columns are as follows: x Video Systems – A list of the types of video systems and equipment available x System Description – A short description of the video system x System Utilization – The application of the system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 16- Video Systems – Imaging Devices and Imaging Control Video Systems/Components System Description System Utilization Imaging Devices Monochrome (Black & White) Monochromatic image collection device that converts photons to electronics Functions as retina of camera system Tube Imaging tube is used to convert scene light into an electronic signal Light image to electronic signal converter Solid State Solid state image devices convert photon to electrons - CCD charged coupled device, CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductors and others Light image to electronic signal converter Color Color image collection device that convert photon to electrons in 3 color bands - Red, Green, Blue Retina of camera system Tube Imaging tube is used to convert scene light into an electronic signal Light image to electronic signal converter Solid State Solid state image devices convert photon to electrons - CCD charged coupled device, CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductors and others Light image to electronic signal converter Convertible Color Image at higher light levels (about 1 lux) and Black & White at lower Color at high light level, Black & White at low Thermal Imaging System (TIS) Camera Imaging system that convert Infrared Light (IR) photons to electronic signal, Visible Light is about 0.4 to 0.7 microns, Near IR is 0.7 to 3.0, Mid Wave IR is 3.0 to 6.0, Long Wave IR is 6.0 to 15, and Very Long Wave IR is about 15. Imaging sensors examples include InGaAs (indium gallium arsenide, InSb (indium Antimonide), Microbolometer and QWIP (quantum well infrared photo detectors) Uses emission of IR photons not reflection of visible photons Lens Optical device to collect and direct light to imaging device - eye of camera Used to set field of view and light collection ability Imaging Control Zoom Lens Optically or Digital controllable zoom features Used to zoom in on video scene of interest Optical - - Digital - - Pan and Tilt Controllable camera mount that allow Pan (side to side motion) and Tilt (up and down motion) of camera Used to aim camera at desired view point, can be manual or automated control Iris Control Control to allow amount of light onto image sensor Extreme light conditions, Iris control is normally an automatic function controlled by lens or camera imager Focus Control Manual method to focus lens view Adjust for change lens focus Image Intensifiers Device that electronically amplifies available light Extra low light conditions Security Mirrors Optical Reflective Mirrors Allow camera to see around blocking objects Wiper / Washer System Wiper / Washer similar to car windshield device Use to clean and clear objects off of camera enclosure window Heater / Cooler System to heat or cool camera enclosure Maintain camera system within operational temperature ranges

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 17 - Video Systems Strengths and Weaknesses – Imaging Devices and Imaging Control Video Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Imaging Devices Monochrome (Black & White) More sensitive in low light levels than color cameras No color image to help identify image under view Tube Excellent image quality in new system Obsolete technology (40 years old), image burn in, short tube life, requires 10 lux illumination, smear and flare problems Solid State Current Technology, some models work in 0.1 lux or less, high resolution Proper selection requires detailed knowledge of lens characteristics and capabilities, no color to aid in identification Color Provides color images Less sensitive to low light illumination, more complex and expensive than Black & White cameras Tube Excellent image quality in new system Obsolete technology (40 years old), image burn in, short tube life, requires 40 to 100 lux illumination, smear and flare problems Solid State Current Technology Proper selection requires detailed knowledge of lens characteristics and capabilities, need more light than black & white system Convertible Provide best of both Black & White and Color Expense, lower resolution than Black & White camera Thermal Imaging System (TIS) Camera Require no ambient light, can covertly view areas, NIR can be supplemented with IR spot lights, prices are dropping and capabilities increasing Expensive, need IR source to view, lower quality and resolution, monochromatic images (false color available), higher maintenance cost, some systems require expensive cooling systems, Proper selection requires detailed knowledge of characteristics and capabilities Lens Numerous versions and models available for different format imagers, focal length, f-stop, optical quality, filters, mount type, and control (see below) Proper selection requires detailed knowledge of lens characteristics and capabilities, special expensive lens required for IR imaging devices Imaging Control Zoom Lens - - Optical Allow large zooms without loss of picture quality Expensive, larger lens size, larger zooms are very expensive and require robust and stable mounting Digital Inexpensive software adaptation Zoom degrades picture quality, only available on certain models of camera systems Pan and Tilt Allows one camera to cover larger area, allows camera to be directed to area of interest Expensive, must maintain system, must provide interface control and data link Iris Control Allow precise control on light Requires manual control system, automatic control sufficient for most systems Focus Control Provide manual control for fine adjustment and zoom systems Manual control, properly adjusted fixed system doesn't require this feature, properly adjusted zoom systems requires minimal control Image Intensifiers Allows viewing in extra low light conditions Expensive, Image problems with large view contrast, requires non standard controller, difficult to adjust, not needed for well-lit areas or with IR cameras Security Mirrors Inexpensive, allows single camera to see "around" corners Limited resolution and low quality of view, requires pan/tilt/zoom camera for full utilization Wiper / Washer System Allows remote wipe / wash of enclosure window Require extra control, maintenance, washer refill (with non freezing solution) Heater / Cooler Allow camera system operation in harsh temperature environments Expensive (for cooler), required added power, system maintenance

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 18 - Video Systems – Data and Power Transmission, Viewing Devices, Video Control Devices, Video Recording Devices Video Systems System Description System Utilization Data and Power Transmission Camera Power Power supply for camera, lens, pan, tilt, image intensifier, wipe, wash, etc. Use to power camera systems DC DC powered system Used for camera and zoom AC AC line power system Used for complete systems Solar / Stand Alone Solar Powered Used were power is not readily available Control Signals Methods to send control signal to camera system Zoom, Pan, Tilt, Image intensifier, wipe, wash, etc. Wire Metallic cable with insulation - Fiber Optic Glass Fiber Optic cable with protective outer jacket - RF Radio Frequency Wave - Video Signals Method to send video from camera to viewing and control devices Viewing of video signal Wire Metallic cable with insulation, normally RG-59, 6, or 11: 75 ohm coaxial cable, can be twisted pair with driver converter - Fiber Optic Glass Fiber Optic cable with protective outer jacket, plastic fiber optic used is special short run classified locations - RF Radio Frequency Wave - Viewing Devices Video Monitors CRT Allow viewing of video signal Observation of video images Video Monitor Flat Panel Allow viewing of video signal, Including LCD, Plasma, Field Emission Observation of video images Video Control Devices Pan / Tilt / Zoom Control Control system that allow pan/tilt/zoom manipulation Steer camera image to desire location Iris Control Control system to open lens iris to allow more or less light onto camera imaging device Adjust amount of light input to form video image Focus Control Control system to adjust lens focus Change lens focus when scene changes Image Intensifier Control Electronics device to amplify available light Allows viewing of low light scenes Video Switcher Switcher to route video signals from multiple cameras to lower number of monitors Human interfaces design dictates a limited number of monitors to provide effective viewing, video switcher provide a higher number of video signals to lower number of viewing monitors Video Matrix Switcher An electronic switching system that allows support for a large number of cameras, monitors and recording devices. Enable intelligent control and viewing of video systems Control and monitoring of medium to large video surveillance systems Video Recording Devices Video Tape Recorder Recording of video signal on magnetic tape - Video Cassette Recorder VCR Archive of video for review, legal, and security requirements Digital Video Recorders (DVR) Recording of video signal on computer hard disk Archive of video for review, legal, and security requirements DVR Control System Control system and interface for DVR Controls of a system of numerous DVRs

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 19 - Video Systems Strengths and Weaknesses – Data and Power Transmission, Viewing Devices, Video Control Devices, Video Recording Devices Video Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Data and Power Transmission Camera Power Necessary Must provide reliable and stable power, poor power means poor quality DC Stable and quality power easily provided, simple battery back up Voltage drop problems for long distance from supply to camera system, not suitable for larger system loads such as large pan / tilt units, must run power to camera system AC Large power loads easily accommodated Stability and quality problems, complex power back up, must run power to camera system Solar / Stand Alone Provides power where normal supplies are not available, self contained Requires sunlight input, High costs, battery maintenance, limited load capability Control Signals Required for operation More complex than automated control (when available) Wire Inexpensive, easy to connect and install Limited to shorter distances, subject to electro magnetic interference Fiber Optic Immune to EMI, allows long distance connections, interface from wire control to extend control distance Expensive, requires special tools for installation and connection, Requires electric to optical conversion equipment RF No wire or fiber required Expensive, subject to EMI interference, not secure, in higher frequency systems limited to line of sight only Video Signals Required for operations - Wire Inexpensive, easy to connect and install Limited to shorter distances (1,000 feet for RG-11), subject to electro magnetic interference and ground loops Fiber Optic Immune to EMI, allow long distance (more than 50 miles) connections Expensive, requires special tools for installation and connection, Requires electric to optical conversion equipment, plastic limited to about 100 feet RF No wire or fiber required Expensive, subject to EMI interference, not secure, mostly limited to line of sight connection Viewing Devices Video Monitors CRT Industry standard Monitor burn in (from viewing same unchanging image), System aging contributes to loss of image quality, large depth, heat output Video Monitor Flat Panel Thin, lower power consumption, limited image degradation over time Expensive, need Video-to-monitor adapter / driver Video Control Devices Pan / Tilt / Zoom Control Allow precise manual control More complex system to install and maintain Iris Control Allow precise manual control Normally automatic control is sufficient, added user control point with accompanying system, training, and maintenance Focus Control Allow precise manual control None - required feature Image Intensifier Control Allow viewing of video image where normally none would be seen, provides manual control Non standard control and not available on all control systems Video Switcher Inexpensive, simple to install and operate Does not provide advanced features of a matrix switcher (see below), supports only small and limited number of video signals and monitors Video Matrix Switcher Allows assignment of many cameras to manageable number of monitors, includes provisions for control, routing to video recorder devices, interface to and from ACS and IDS, automatic control of pan / tilt / zoom and other camera control functions, allow loss of video and other alarms Expensive, complex to install and configure, more difficult operation, training required Video Recording Devices Video Tape Recorder Inexpensive, easy to operate, tapes easily transported Medium to low video quality, difficult to archive and save tapes, difficult to find required video information, loss of video tapes, storage of video tape, maintenance of VCRs Digital Video Recorders (DVR) Drop in replacement of VCR, higher image quality available, easier and quicker access to video scenes, can be downloaded to CD-ROM/floppy drive, incidents can be downloaded from a remote site using client software Expensive, must support, back up, and maintain DVR computer system, requires compression of video for effective operation, large hard disk required, digital video files are very large DVR Control System Allows network access and control to DVRs Complex computer system, requires back support, and training

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 41 3.4.3 Costs Video system characteristics are only part of the information required to choose an appropriate system. In addition implementation, maintenance, training, and life expectancy must be included in the selection criteria. The following tables provide a summary of costs. Please note that even though materials costs and similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the tables. Each authority will need to include this factor in implementation and support of the deployed systems. Tables 20 – 22 provide a reference to rough systems costs. x Video Systems – A list of the types of video system x Cost of Implementation – Rough range of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – including operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – extra or special training expressed as a one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – System life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 20 - Video Systems Cost – Camera Systems and Image Control System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % Per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Camera Systems Monochrome (Black & White) - - - - - - - Tube - Obsolete - - - - 1 to 2 years for image tube Solid State $100 to $1K In some instances installation and infrastructure costs exceed camera costs 5% Little to no maintenance 0% -5% Little to no training required 5 to 7 years Color - - - - - - - Tube - Obsolete - - - - 1 to 2 years for image tube Solid State $500 to $3K In some instances installation and infrastructure costs exceed camera costs 5% Little to no maintenance 0% -5% Little to no training required 5 to 7 years Convertible 10% to 20% Small premium on color camera 5% Similar to color 0% -5% Little to no training required 6 to 7 years Thermal Imaging System (TIS) Camera $10 to $200K Very WIDE range of capabilities and costs. Factors - image resolution & cooling 10% Most units are sealed, cooling system and imager maintenance dependant on use hours 10% For higher end systems, low end systems are similar to standard video 3 to 5 years, can be refurbished for extend life Imaging Control Zoom Lens - - - - - - - Optical $40 to $5K Fixed versus zoom, F stop, mm size, auto iris, auto focus, etc. <5% Cleaning 0% None Life of camera Digital 10% Included in the cost of some imaging camera systems, small to no premium 0% No maintenance, part of camera system 0% None Life of camera Pan and Tilt $1K to $3K Cost varies according to load and speed, some systems include integral pan & tilt (dome cameras) 5% Cleaning and lubrication 5% Minimal training for maintenance procedures 5 to 10 years Iris Control $0 Include in most lens <5% Normally no maintenance 0% None Life of camera Focus Control $0 Include in most lens <5% May need adjustment 0% None Life of camera Image Intensifiers $15 to $30K Add on between lens and camera system Varies Imager tube can be damaged by excess light, life expectancy 10K hours 5% Minimal training for maintenance procedures 10,000 hours for tube, system 5+ years Security Mirrors $20 to $100 Available in various shapes and materials <5% Routine cleaning 0% It is a mirror 10+ years Wiper / Washer System Addition to outdoor camera systems Keeping washer fluid tank filled is problematic. Wiper blades and fluid hose need frequent replacement 5% Minimal training for maintenance procedures System 5 to 10 years, wiper blades & hoses 1 to 3 years Heater / Cooler $5 to $500 Heater simple resistive add on, cooler are expensive 5% - 20% Electrical power and AC maintenance 0% None for heater, Cooler is standard AC system Heater life of camera housing, Cooler 5 - 10 years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 21 - Video Systems Cost – Data and Power Transmission, Viewing Devices System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % Per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Data and Power Transmission Camera Power - - - - - - - DC $100 to $350 Small AC to DC power supply with battery 5% Battery replacement every 3 to 5 years 0% None 10+ years AC $20+ AC transformer <5% No maintenance 0% None 10+ years Solar / Stand Alone $500 to $2K Solar Panel with power conditioner and battery back up, dependant on power consumption and available sun light 10% Clean solar panels & Battery replacement every 1 to 3 years 5% Cleaning & set up procedures 5 to 7 years Control Signals - - - - - - - Wire 50 cents to $3 per foot Control wires from control station to camera unit <5% Little to no maintenance <5% Training on camera control 10+ years Fiber Optic Cable $1+ per foot, Converters $500 to $2K each Can use same equipment and multiplex signal <5% Little to no maintenance 25% Training on fiber optics methods, testing, maintenance, and safety 10+ years RF Add $0 to $5K Required return channel from control station to camera, included in some RF video units 10% Routing antenna alignment, cleaning and frequency check 20% RF and video set up and maintenance 5 to 10 years Video Signals - - - - - - - Wire Coax Cable $0.50 foot and up, converters $250 and up Coax or twisted pair with converter, dependant on distance 5% Little to no maintenance, converters may need adjustment 10% Training on testing of video signals 10+ years Fiber Optic Cable $1+ per foot, Converters $500 to $2K each Require electro-optic converters, highly dependant on distance <5% Little to no maintenance 25% Training on fiber optics methods, testing, maintenance and safety 10+ years RF $2K to $50K Radio link dependant on frequency, distance, and line of sight 10% Routing antenna alignment, cleaning and frequency check 20% RF and video set up and maintenance 5 to 10 years Viewing Devices Video Monitors CRT $150 to $500 Cost dependant on resolution and screen size 20% Low maintenance, some monitors may experience 'burn in' from fixed images 5% Cleaning procedures & calibration 5 to 7 years Video Monitor Flat Panel $350 to $20K Cost dependant on screen size, need converter for some panels, extra large sizes available 10% Low maintenance, lower power consumption, and lower heat output compared to CRT <5% Special Cleaning 5 to 10 years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 22 – Video Systems Cost – Video Control Devices, Video Recording Devices System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % Per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Video Control Devices Pan / Tilt / Zoom, Focus & Iris Control $500 to $2K Normally keyboard / joy stick device, many include video switcher, can be software controlled via computer and RS-232 /422 interface <5% Routine cleaning 10% to 20% Some systems are counterintuitive and difficult to operation 5 to 10 years Image Intensifier Control $1 to $3k Control System for Image Intensifier, typically RS-232 computer control 10% Low maintenance computer control <5% Operation training 5 to 10 years Video Switcher $100 to $3K Simple low end switch of video signals to monitor & recording devices, dependant on channels and automatic features <5% Little to no maintenance, no to very low power consumption <5% Normally simple push button operation 10+ years Video Matrix Switcher $5K and up Large cost variation on number of video inputs and outputs. Ranges as high as 2,000+ inputs <5% Low maintenance 10% Operational training and support 10+ years Video Recording Devices Video Tape Recorder $250 to $1K Standard Security VHS Tape Recorder, home unit not acceptable, features determine cost 20% Video heads must be clean, and tape archived, rotated, and replaced 0% It is a VCR! 3 to 5 years depending on use Digital Video Recorders (DVR) $2k to $10K Dependant on software features and hard disk space <10% Low maintenance self contained unit, low power consumption 10% Similar to VCR control, also need computer interface and back methods 5 to 7 years DVR Control System $10K to $50K and up Integrated Computer Control System, cost depend on size and complexity including network distribution and control 20% Complex computer system with large amount of disk storage and recorded video back system, high bandwidth demands on network 25% and up Training in network operation & support 5 to 7 years, may need to replace failed hard disks

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 45 3.4.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of video systems. These include, but are not limited to the following. x Coordination with Lighting System installation x Privacy concerns of viewing and recording video images x Work rule concerns of viewing and recording video images x Legal implications of video surveillance x A system for archiving recorded video must be established and supported. This includes, but is not limited to the following:  Legal requirement  Chain of custody  Storage medium selection  Secure and temperature controlled storage area  A method to retrieve and return archived video 3.5 ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS 3.5.1 Technology Access control systems provide a method to control through a credential or token the entry and, if desired, the exit from a controlled secure area. The control method can be anything from a key, to access card, to a biometrics data file. The form and method of selection is determined by the transit system’s requirements, budget, and technology growth path. Besides providing positive control of personnel movement, the ACS, when interfaced to the IDS, provides a method to both suppress and enable alarms. The ACS provides control to the IDS by either time/date or via individual access grants. The proper integration of this feature provides an orders-of-magnitude increase in system function. Currently there are no ACS requirements or standards for transit facilities, but examples and standards can be found in other industries and transit areas. ACS vendors provide features and functions that have developed over years of fulfilling commercial requests and requirements. These vendor ‘features and functions’ can be taken as commercial standards since currently there are no mandated standards for private industry. An excellent example of non-military systems is published by the FAA (107.14 for ACS at United States airport facilities). Military standards can be found in various military handbooks. Chapter 4 contains a survey list used to quantify and qualify the ACS. A short summary is included here. x Determine the number and locations of access systems required x If multiple locations are required ensure there is network connectivity x Identify the number of access ‘portals’ (controlled gates and doors) for each security zone x Determine access rules by personnel and time

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 46 x Determine what needs to be tracked – people and materials x Determine the number of badges required x Determine if there are hazardous conditions x Is a physical characteristic for an individual required for positive identification (a biometric such as fingerprint or retinal scan)? x What type of reader and badge is required? x Determine badge layout and numbers required x Determine data history and requirements x Determine any integration with other systems, e.g., - IDS - Video - HR - Attendance 3.5.2 Applications Access control systems technologies cover the spectrum from simple keys to highly integrated biometrics controls. Tables 23 – 26 provide a summary of the systems. Note that in addition to the benefits listed above an ACS can also provide historical access data that can aid in post- incident analysis and potential legal action. Columns are as follows: x Access Control Systems – A list of the types of systems and equipment available x System Description – A short description of the systems and equipment x System Utilization – The application of the system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 23 - Access Control Systems - Credentials Access Control Systems System Description System Utilization Credentials Mechanical Key Standard and custom metal key used to open mechanical locks Provide controlled access to locked areas and facilities Mechanical Combination Combination Mechanical Locking Locking of doors and cabinets Electronic Combination - Key Pad Electronic version of combination lock. Uses numeric or alpha numeric keypad Locking of doors and cabinets Electronic Credential A device with memory that is used to enable access to an electronic control system, Magnetic Stripe, Wiegand, Proximity, Laser Card, Barcode, Smart Card. Stored information used by access control system to validate and control access. Access to controlled and security areas, audit of access, database tracking Barcode A one or two dimension printed code, similar to UPC on food items Tracking of cards and products Magnetic Stripe Magnetic material applied to card, best example credit cards Access control and financial transactions Wiegand Short length of heat treated wire installed in plastic card, external magnetic field energizes card to allow reading of code Access control Proximity RF embedded antenna inside card, RF signal from reader activates and collects data from card Non contact read and authorization of credential Smart Card Memory chip installed in card contains data and computer processor Storage of user data, cryptographic and security processing Proximity Smart Card Memory chip installed in card contains data and computer processor, interface via proximity Storage of user data, cryptographic and security processing Other Cards Magnetic Spots, Optical Storage, IR barcode, etc. Access control Biometric Credential Use human biometric characteristic to identify user, Fundamental criteria - Failure to enroll, False Acceptance Rate, False Rejection Rate, and ergonomics/ease of use User verification and authentication Finger Print - Optical Optical scanner measures finger print Finger print image - location & direction of ridge endings and bifurcations Finger Print - Capacitive Capacitive sensor measures finger print Finger print image - location & direction of ridge endings and bifurcations Finger Print - Ultrasonic Ultrasonic sound wave measures finger print Finger print image - location & direction of ridge endings and bifurcations Iris Scan Optical scanner measures iris Iris image - furrows & striations on iris Retinal Scan Optical scanner measures eye retinal pattern Retina image - blood vessel pattern Hand Geometry Optical 3D measure of hand shape 3D image of hand - height & width of bones & joints of hands & fingers Face Scan Electronic imaging (Camera or IR camera) device measure facial characteristics Facial image - relative position & shape of nose, position of cheekbones Voice Print Voice "signature" via spoken input Voice recording - frequency, cadence, & duration Signature Electronic version of signature via electronic stylus and input pad Signature image and writing dynamics Other Methods Bone structure, body thermal imaging, hand blood vessel pattern, etc. -

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 24 - Access Control Systems – Credentials Strengths and Weaknesses Access Control Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Credentials Mechanical Key Inexpensive, no electrical power required, established infrastructure, easy to duplicate and distribute keys Key inventory control very difficult, loss of key requires lock replacement, Locks can be picked, unauthorized key duplication Mechanical Combination Combination can be changed, no electrical power required Combination code hard to secure, no indication / trace ability of who opened device Electronic Combination - Key Pad No key to lose, programmable Combination code hard to secure, no indication / trace ability to who opened lock, electrical power required Electronic Credential Credential can be revoked without recovering device, inexpensive, established infrastructure Counterfeit cards, lost cards, mechanical wear, electro / magnetic erasing Barcode Inexpensive to produce, under $1 a card Easily counterfeited, subject to wear, ID has very limited data capacity, limited read range, light interference problems with some readers Magnetic Stripe Commonly used, mature technology, familiar user operation, inexpensive $1-3 card Limited data capacity, subject to erasing and mechanical damage Wiegand Hard to duplicate, robust, non erasable Long lead time for additional card, being replaced by Proximity, $5 each Proximity Non contact, low wear More expensive than contact type cards, $4 and up Smart Card High security, data in card not system, large data capacity, used for Department of Defense Common Access Card (CAC), wide spread use in Europe for financial transaction Mechanical wear, expensive $8+ cards, limited but growing market penetration Proximity Smart Card Non contract, low wear, less data storage than contact smart card, proposed for Transportation Worker Identification Credential (TWIC), next version of CAC Expensive $10+ card, limited but growing market penetration, read range very limited (about 5 cm) Other Cards Hard to duplicate because of limited market Limited market penetration and use Biometric Credential With proper tuning very high false reject rate and very high false acceptance rate, excellent method of identification and verification Requires large data storage, more intrusive measurement method, higher computation processing power, problems with revocation of identifier Finger Print - Optical Inexpensive ($200), easy to use, small file size (250 Bytes) Subject to counterfeit attack, problems with dirty fingers Finger Print - Capacitive Inexpensive ($300), easy to use, small file size (250 Bytes) Moderate price, subject to counterfeit attack, problems with dirty fingers Finger Print - Ultrasonic Works with dirty fingers, harder to spoof with counterfeit, small file size (250 Bytes), high accuracy Expensive ($2K), newer technology Iris Scan Easy to measure, moderate file size (512 Bytes), high accuracy, Inexpensive ($300 and up) Works in biohazard suit, moderately easy to fool Retinal Scan Mature and fully developed, small biometric identification file, works on identical twins, small file size (96 Bytes) excellent false acceptance and rejection rates Single product vendor, expensive system ($3K), large readers, slower response Hand Geometry Mature and fully developed, very small file size (9 Bytes) Moderate Expense ($1.4K) and large readers, limited vendors Face Scan Fits into Photo as identification model, photos of user already on file, can use inexpensive camera and system ($1K) Poor field operations and results, only works well under controlled imaging situations, facial changes degrades performance, face angle important, higher false rejection and acceptance rate, large file size (1.3 KB) Voice Print Easy to use Not generally used for ACS, problems with noisy environments, pass code is audible to others, very large file size (2 to 10KB) Signature Familiar user operation Signature hard to produce on input devices, used for business transaction not Access Control, large file size (1.5 KB) Other Methods - In research and not commercially available

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 25 - Access Control Systems – Access Control Devices, Data and Power Transmission, “Systems” Access Control Systems System Description System Utilization Access Control Devices Mechanical Lock Door locks, pad locks, cabinet locks, etc. Locking Electric Strike Lock Electromagnet control latch or strike Addition of electronic control to existing lock system Magnetic Lock DC current energizes electro-magnet Addition of locking device Data and Power Transmission System Power Power supply for door strikes, magnetic locks, access control panels, card readers, etc. Use to access control system components DC DC powered system Used for control panels, access control devices and magnetic locks AC AC line power system Used for large loads such as electric strikes and computers systems Control Signals Methods to send control signal and control data Credential read data, door control, computer control, ACS data Wire Metallic cable with insulation - Fiber Optic Glass Fiber Optic cable with protective outer jacket - RF Radio Frequency Wave - Systems Electronic Stand Alone Single Stand Alone Reader and control system Authenticates credential and opens control device (door, cabinet, etc.), monitors door status Electronic Network Multiple reader and control system Network of card readers and access control systems Integrated Systems Integration of ACS with Intrusion Detection Sensors and Identification System Provide a unified system for ACS, IDS, ID & Video Control

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 26 - Access Control System - Access Control Devices, Data and Power Transmission, “Systems” Strengths and Weakness Access Control Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Access Control Devices Mechanical Lock Very mature technology, no electrical power required, common system with large support infrastructure, various level of security and robustness, competitive pricing Lost key requires re-keying or replacement, no reco Electric Strike Lock Can be interfaced to fire / life safety system, can be overridden with key, mature technology with support infrastructure, record of use, available in fail safe or fail secure Requires power, maintenance, and can stick, can b Magnetic Lock Can be interfaced to fire / life safety system, allow locking of glass, sliding, and other door not normally securable, very strong versions (over 600 lbs) available, can't be bypassed by key, fail safe, no maintenance required Required power for operation, fail secure not availa Data and Power Transmission System Power Necessary Must provide reliable and stable power for electroni loss of security, battery back up or similar system re DC Stable and quality power easily provided, simple battery back up Voltage drops problems for long distance from supp suitable for larger system loads such as electric stri AC Large power loads easily accommodated Stability and quality problems, reliable and clean po systems, loss of AC may mean loss of security Control Signals Required for operation Control wiring must be secured from RFI, EMI, and Wire Inexpensive, easy to connect and install Limited to shorter distances, subject to electro mag Fiber Optic Immune to EMI, allows long distance connections, interface from wire control to extend control distance Expensive, requires special tools for installation and electric to optical conversion equipment RF No wire or fiber required Expensive, subject to EMI, not secure, in higher fre line of sight only “Systems” Electronic Stand Alone Inexpensive, ideal for board or computer room door, mature technology, many systems and vendors available, usable single unit systems, some have plug in for computer used for configuration and back up Not integrated into larger system, not easily upgrad back up Electronic Network Creates a systems of readers and access control equipment, mature technology with many systems and vendors available Requires network wiring, clean and back up power, and power requirements, system configuration more Integrated Systems Provide a method to fully integrate security functions of ACS, IDS, ID, and Video & Control Complex and expensive systems, single vendors so source, requires clean and back up power, complex training and support expensive and complex, difficu sensors such as radar and sonar.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 51 3.5.3 Costs Access control system characteristics are only part of the information required to choose and appropriate systems. In addition implementation, maintenance, training, and life expectancy must be included in the selection criteria. Tables 27 and 28 provide a summary of costs. Please note that even though materials costs and similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the tables. Each authority will need to include this factor in implementation and support of the deployed systems. The following tables provide a reference to estimated systems costs. x Access Systems – A list of the types of lighting system x Cost of Implementation – Rough range of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – including operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – extra or special training expressed as a one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – System life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 27 - Access Control Systems - Credentials and Biometric Credential Cost System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Credentials Mechanical Key $1 to $10 Depends on design, patent, and security level 20%+ No maintenance, but considerable effort to maintain and track keys 20% Lock smith and key production training, sometimes cost effective to send work out 20+ years Mechanical Combination $100 to $600 Depends on design and security level 20%+ Limited maintenance but update lock combination and service high use units 10% Simple update and maintenance 10+ years Electronic Combination - Key Pad $250 to $1K Simple install in place of adjacent to lock <5% Very low maintenance, need to replace battery on some units <5% Simple interface & control 10+ years Electronic Credential Readers - - - - - - - Barcode $100 to $500 Depends on range, resolution, indoor versus outdoor, stand alone versus PC required 5% Cleaning of swipe type 5% Requires training in theory of operation and trouble shooting 5 to 10 years Magnetic Stripe $100 to $500 Depends on style and read head durability 10% Periodic head cleaning required, replacement of read head after swipe life exceeded 5% Requires training in theory of operation and trouble shooting 5 to 7 years Wiegand $200 to $400 Depends on style and indoor versus outdoor 5% Minimal maintenance, cleaning 5% Requires training in theory of operation and trouble shooting 5 to 10 years Proximity $150 to $1K Depends on range and style of reader <5% No regular maintenance required 5% Requires training in theory of operation and trouble shooting 10+ years Smart Card $40 to $500 Depends on stand alone or PC required and quantity 5% Contact cleaning 10% Requires training in theory of operation and trouble shooting 5 to 7 years Proximity Smart Card $2K to $4K Depends on range, style & quantity <5% No regular maintenance required 10% Requires training in theory of operation and trouble shooting 10+ years Biometric Credential Finger Print - Optical $150 to $1K Require PC for control 10% Cleaning and PC support 10% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base 5 to 7 years Finger Print - Capacitive $350 to $2K Require PC for control 10% Cleaning and PC support 10% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base 5 to 7 years Finger Print - Ultrasonic $2K to $3K Stand Alone with network connection 5% Cleaning 10% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base 5 to 7 years Iris Scan $200 to $2K Require PC for control 15% Cleaning and PC support 10% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base 5 to 7 years Retinal Scan $3K to $5K Stand Alone with network connection 5% Cleaning 10% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base 5 to 7 years Hand Geometry $3K to $5K Stand Alone with network connection 5% Cleaning 10% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base 5 to 7 years Face Scan $2K to $5K Require PC for image processing and control 15% Support of computer 15% Methods of registration, maintenance of data base, support of computer system 5 to 7 years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 28 - Access Control Systems – Access Control Devices, Data and Power Transmission, Systems Costs System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Access Control Devices Mechanical Lock $50 to $150 Depends on design and security level 25% Requires minimal adjustment and repair. Expense in maintenance of key inventory 5% Standard locks and keys 20+ years Electric Strike Lock $150 to $500 Depends on design and security level 20% Requires adjustment of strike and door, lubrication of strike 5% Mechanics simple and straight forward 5 to 15 years depending on use and abuse Magnetic Lock $350 to $700 Depends on design and security level <5% Very low maintenance <5% Simple training on theory and operation 10+ years Data and Power Transmission System Power - - - - - - - DC $100 to $350 Small AC to DC power supply with battery 5% Battery replacement every 3 to 5 years 0% None 10+ years AC $20+ AC transformer <5% No maintenance 0% None 10+ years Control Signals - - - - - - - Wire $.50 to $3 foot Wires for readers, power supplies, and network (access control and data) <5% Little to no maintenance <5% Training on camera control 10+ years Fiber Optic Cable $1+ per foot, Converters $500 to $2K each Require electro-optic converters, highly dependant on distance <5% Little to no maintenance 25% Training on fiber optics methods, testing, maintenance, and safety 10+ years RF $2K to $50K Radio link dependant of frequency, distance, and line of sight 10% Routing antenna alignment, cleaning and frequency check 20% RF and control set up and maintenance 5 to 10 years Systems Electronic Stand Alone $2K to $5K Some require PC for programming 20% Maintain system and update of configuration of changing users 20% Configuration, update, and routine maintenance 5 to 7 years Electronic Network $5K to $500K System to connect multiple readers, very dependant on size and topology of network 20% Cost greatly dependant of network upkeep and maintenance, can be much lower 10% Standard computer type of network 10+ years Integrated Systems $25 to $4M Depends on size, number of readers, remote location, number of users, etc. 20% Support includes large computer system, network, power supplies, card readers, data base, and configuration 5% to 10% Training on system maintenance, configuration, and support 5 to 10 years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 54 3.5.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of ACS. These include, but are not limited to the following. x Privacy concerns of historical access records x Work rule concerns of access records x Legal implications of access control operation or failure to operate x A system for archiving of access records must be established and supported. This includes, but is not limited to the following x Legal requirement x Chain of custody x Storage medium selection x Secure and temperature controlled storage area x A method to retrieve and return archived information 3.6 SENSOR SYSTEMS 3.6.1 Technology The heart of Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) is the various sensor systems used to detect violation into a protected area. Information for system design is used to choose and locate sensors. This section describes the types of available sensors, their application, and relative cost. To provide background information, the below data is provided in the following tables. x Annunciation Input – a description of IDS alarm annunciation and alarm classes x Sensor Processing – description of function x Data Fusion & Display – definitions x Sensor Types – generic classification of sensors and their application The authors intentionally omitted a “Cost” data sheet related to Table 29 and Table 30 due to the fact that these two tables are used primarily to discuss general and wide-ranging technology topics. These Sensor System features (Annunciation Input, Sensor Processing, Data Fusion & Display, and Sensor Types) should be considered as overall “general” topics. When focusing more directly on specific types of sensor technologies (Table 31 through Table 36), cost data sheets for these sensor systems are provided as Tables 38, 39, and 40.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 29 - Sensor Systems – Annunciation Input, Data Fusion & Display, Sensor Types Sensor Systems System Description System Utilization Annunciation Input Description Digital input to annunciate alarm condition, result of alarm trip or output of alarm processing system. Result is contact closure or contact open Method to annunciate alarm condition Grade B Digital input annunciation with normally open or normally closed contact, state change annunciates alarm Alarm annunciation Grade A Supervise alarm input with line and sensor resistor Alarm annunciation Grade AA Response / Interrogation for alarm sensor Alarm annunciation Sensor Processing Equipment and computer processors that receive sensor inputs and determine if an alarm condition exists. Provide binary output of processing decision Use to determine if sensor excitation is actual alarm, not required for binary sensor devices Data Fusion & Display Remote Data Integration Sensors System to collect at field site, inputs from various sensor systems Lessen cabling and communication requirements for large number of sensors Alarm Reporting Map Display Systems Computer or mimic mapping system to display sensor layout zones and to annunciated conditions and alarms A method to provide human monitoring for alarms and system status Sensor Types Interior Sensor installed inside building and structure interiors Sensors for interior use and moderate environmental conditions Exterior Sensor installed in outdoor locations, also used in harsh indoor environments Exterior and Harsh environments, can be used for interior sensors Area Sensor Sensor used to monitor a physical surface area such as a floor, outdoor ground area, etc. Can be simple as pressure mat to buried field sensor. Distinction between Area and Volume sensors are sometimes limited Used to monitor 2-dimensional surfaces that intruder crosses during system penetration Barrier Sensors Sensors used to monitor a physical barrier - fence, wall, roof, window, etc. Sensor annunciates physical modification or attack of barrier Point Sensors A sensor that is used to monitor a single point such as door position (open or closed) Used for barrier that "close": doors, windows, cabinets, safe doors, etc Volume Sensors Sensor used to monitor a physical space such as room interior, volume around a door, or volume adjacent to a fence Used to monitor 3-dimensional volumes that intruder enter during system penetration

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 30 - Sensor Systems - Annunciation Input, Data Fusion & Display, Sensor Types Strengths and Weaknesses Sensor Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Annunciation Input Description Simple Yes / No binary output Alarm Processing - evaluation of input data to determine whether to announce alarm condition Intrusion Alarm - annunciation of alarm resulting from detection of specified target attempting to intrude into protected area Nuisance Alarm - annunciation of alarm by detection of stimuli that is not attempt to intrude into protected area Environmental Alarm - annunciation of alarm resulting from environmental conditions False Alarm - annunciation of alarm with no alarm stimuli Grade B Simple equipment & design Easily subject to bypass, system failures not annunciated to system Grade A Annunciates system and equipment failure, straight forward installation Can be defeated by meticulous expert Grade AA Extremely high security Extremely difficult to bypass, complex and more expensive, circuit after AA device is grade A or B Sensor Processing Provides method to determine Intrusion vs. Nuisance vs. Environmental Alarm, System can be tuned and trained to sensor characteristics installation environmental conditions Expensive, conflicting requirements for alarms conditions, improper setting lowers probability of detection, must be tuned and trained to sensor and environmental conditions of installation Data Fusion & Display Remote Data Integration Sensors Less field wiring, low power consumption, easier to upgrade and add sensors If integration device fails, system will lose all sensors connected to device Alarm Reporting Map Display Systems Superior human interface, allows both alarm and condition monitoring of sensors, industry standard More expensive and complex than simple on / off notification (Example - red light) Sensor Types Interior Less expenses, more sensitive, than exterior devices Less physically and environmentally robust Exterior Physically and environmentally robust More expensive and less sensitive than interior sensors Area Sensor Normally hidden from intruder view, provide excellent back up to other sensors Sensor zone can be bridged or jumped over, requires sensor processing for advanced systems Barrier Sensors Provide annunciation of physical attack Barrier is normally damaged or altered to initiate sensor alarm, sensor processing required Point Sensors Simple, easy to install, readily available, binary output (no signal processing required) Point can be bypass physically (cut hole in door instead of open door), sensor can be bypassed Volume Sensors Excellent method to define and monitor secure volume, excellent results for interior volumes Sensor can sometimes be masked, require sensor processing, can be subject to nuisance alarms, sometime difficult to properly design and adjust for outdoor uses

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 57 3.6.2 Applications Sensor systems technologies cover the spectrum from simple push button switches to complex radar. The following tables provide a summary of the systems. Note that in addition to sensing intrusion, IDS can also provide historical data that can assist post incident analysis. The columns are as follows : x Sensor Systems – A list of the types of systems and equipment available x System Description – A short description of the systems and equipment x System Utilization – The application of the system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 31 - Sensor Systems – Binary Sensors, Buried Sensors, Fence Sensors Sensor Systems System Description System Utilization Binary Sensors Intrusion annunciation by change of contact state - open to closed or closed to open, no signal processing Point and Area sensor for interior and exterior use Balance Magnetic Switch Binary device used to indicate closed or open status, balance magnetic used to prevent external bypass via magnet Point sensor for interior or exterior use Breakwire Intrusion into protected area cause break of wire and annunciation alarm Point sensor for interior use Call Box Alarm Push button activated alarm (special application of duress alarm) Use in Transit Agencies Duress Alarm Push button activated by finger, foot, or removable on money. Wire or wireless Point sensor for interior or exterior use Electric eye / Photo Electric Eye Optical beam of light projected from source to sensor, low end annunciation use Area interior sensor Foil Thin foil attached to windows, broken glass breaks (open circuits) foil Barrier Penetration Sensor for Interior use Magnetic Switch Magnet hold alarm switch in one state, intrusion cause change of state Point interior sensor Mechanical Switch Mechanical switch that changes state when point is changed by intruder Point Sensor Pressure Sensor / Mats / Switch Mat or carpet or similar device wired with switch, when intruder steps on sensor, switch changes state to annunciate alarm Area sensor for interior use Security Screen Wire mesh loop placed in Insect screen, wall or other barrier device, cut or removal of device annunciated alarm Barrier Penetration Sensor for Interior or Exterior use Buried Sensors Sensors buried in ground on secure side of barrier, typically fence - consist of a class of detection methods Area Exterior Sensor Balanced Pressure Buried Tubing / Pipe buried installed under floor and filled with fluid, pressure on tube cause alarm, balancing circuit used to compensate for changing environment conditions Area Sensor for both internal and external use Fiber Optic Cable Fiber cable buried under surface senses intruder by variations in light transmission Area Sensor for both internal and external use Geophone Buried Buried sensor that listens for shock and vibration of intrusion. Adaptation from seismologists / geophysicist instrumentation Area Exterior Sensor Ported Coaxial Buried Line Coaxial cable with "port" or openings in shield conductor that allow leakage of RF signal injected into cable. Alteration of leaked field by intruder activates alarm Area Exterior Sensor Fence Sensors Sensors attached to fence and other barriers to monitor disturbance and attacks Barrier Sensor normally for external use Capacitive Cable Changes in capacitance of cable caused by intrusion annunciates alarm Barrier Sensor normally for external use Electric Field / Electrostatic Field Minimum of 3 wires installed on insulated stand off. One (or more) signal wires and two (or more) sense wires. Interruption of electric field by intruder annunciates alarm. Barrier Sensor normally for external use Fiber Optic Cable / Mesh Fiber optic cable or mesh installed on fence. Disturbance of fence modulates light or in the case of a cut stops light Barrier Sensor for Exterior and Interior use Geophone / Microphone Fence Sensor that measures shock and vibration of monitored fence Barrier Sensor normally for external use Taut Wire / Tension Sensor Wire is installed tightly to fence structure, sensor processor monitors fence movement and tamper, alarms when criteria is met Barrier Sensor normally for external use

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 32 - Sensor Systems – Fixed Barrier/Wall Sensors, Infrared Sensors, Microwave Sensors Sensor Systems System Description System Utilization Fixed Barrier / Wall Sensors Sensors embedded into wall or barrier to monitor disturbance and attacks Barrier Sensor for internal and external use Capacitive Cable Changes in capacitance of cable caused by intrusion annunciates alarm Barrier Sensor for Exterior and Interior use Fiber Optic Cable / Mesh Fiber optic cable or mesh installed in wall or barrier. Disturbance of wall modulates light or in the case of a break stops light Barrier Sensor for Exterior and Interior use Geophone Wall Sensor that measures shock and vibration of monitored wall Barrier Sensor for Exterior and Interior use Infrared Sensors Sensor that utilized Infrared (IR) light (between .7 to 15 microns) to detect intrusion. Source can be Light Emitting Diode (LED) or laser. Systems also include passive sensors that detect presence of IR light from intruder Volume and Area Sensors for interior and exterior use Infrared Beambreak Detector Pair of IR devices consisting of IR transmitter and IR receiver. Transmitter forms beam of microwave energy that when disturbed by intruder is detected at IR receiver. Senses motion and blockage. Systems use multiple beams to reduce nuisance alarms. Area Sensors for interior and exterior use Passive Infrared Sensor / Detector (Heat sensor) IR light detector sensor calibrated to sense heat output from intruder, filters used to eliminate other source of IR Volume Sensor for interior and exterior use Laser Scanning System Short Tower system with laser scanner that maps a contour of a 360 degree area around sensor, intruder into area changes contain and annunciates alarm Volume Sensor for exterior use Microwave Sensors Sensor system that emits and receives microwave energy, modulation or interruption of energy annunciates alarm Volume Sensor for Exterior or Interior use Microwave Bistatic Pair of microwave devices consisting of microwave transmitter and microwave receiver. Transmitter forms cone of microwave energy that when disturbed by intruder is detected at microwave receiver. Senses motion and blockage. Volume sensor for exterior use Microwave Monostatic Single sensor with transmitter and receiver housed in same physical unit, disturbance of microwave energy annunciates alarm Volume Sensor for Exterior or Interior use Radar Land, air, and water surface detection of people, vehicles, boats and other objects Volume and Area sensor for external use Radar Vehicle Detectors Self contained radar unit designed to detect and count vehicles Volume and Area sensor for external use

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 33 - Sensor Systems- Binary Sensors, Buried Sensors, Fence Sensors Strengths and Weaknesses Sensor Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Binary Sensors Simple, no processing required Subject to high nuisance alarm rate Balance Magnetic Switch Binary open or closed, difficult to bypass with external magnet Bypass of barrier that sensor is attached to Breakwire Simple binary input and installation Wire tension must be maintained, alarm requires replacement of wire, not commonly used Duress Alarm Binary open or closed Must be covertly installed and activated to prevent harm to personnel activating alarm Electric eye / Photo Electric Eye Binary response, inexpensive Easily bypassed and observed, visible light systems not commonly used in commercial / industrial security, high nuisance alarm rate, replaced by IR Beam sensors Foil None Not used in new installation, Maintenance problem, foil easy broken by thermal shifts of glass and glass cleaning, difficult to repair, can be bypassed, glass break detectors now used Magnetic Switch Very inexpensive Easy bypass with external magnet, replace by balance magnetic switches Mechanical Switch Micro-switches in limited use for door open sensors Not commonly used, maintenance and contact problems Pressure Sensor / Mats / Switch Simple binary input and installation, used for backup Maintenance problems, easy to bypass or jump over, easily to identify Security Screen Simple, easy to install, allow secure open window Subject to damage and misalignment of screen, must added magnetic switch to preclude removal of screen, relatively easy to bypass Buried Sensors Can follow contour of ground line, hidden from view Some systems require areas preparation versus simple trenching. Proper back fill and tamping required to prevent cable damage. Requires processing equipment and different calibration for different materials - dirt, concrete, grass, etc. Detect above as well as below ground so underground utilities may present operational problems and nuisance alarms, buried cables subject to rodent and erosion damage Balanced Pressure Buried Electromagnetic and Radio Frequency immune High maintenance, no longer supported, fluid leakage, imbalance leads to false alarms, now replaced by other area sensors - fiber optic, ported cables, etc. Fiber Optic Cable Immune to EMI / RFI interference, proper installation and calibration provide a reliable low nuisance alarm results Requires signal processing, area must be prepared with excavation and proper fill, snow may prevent detection of intruder, difficult to service and replace, subject to rodent and erosion damage Geophone Buried Hidden from view, low maintenance for factory sealed and properly installed system Requires signal processing, area must be prepared with excavation and proper fill, snow may prevent detection of intruder, difficult to service and replace, subject to rodent and erosion damage Ported Coaxial Buried Line Simple trench installation, several vendors, established technology Field can be detected with proper instrumentation Fence Sensors Can retrofit existing fence, installation straight forward Visible, requires fence to be maintained in good repair, subject to vandalism, most systems require sensor processor Capacitive Cable Can retrofit existing fence, installation straight forward Cable age and degradation cases nuisance problems, requires recalibration, sensor processing required, low use Electric Field / Electrostatic Field Can retrofit existing fence, installation straight forward, normally easy to trouble shoot and repair Very visible, subject to damage, proper wire tensioning must be maintained, subject to EMI / RFI interference Fiber Optic Cable / Mesh Can retrofit existing fence, installation straight forward, immune to EMI / RFI interference, proper installation and calibration provide a reliable low nuisance alarm result Fiber cable installation, maintenance, and repair requires special tools and test equipment Geophone / Microphone Fence Good immunity to nuisance alarms, easy retrofit installation, very low maintenance for factory delivered sealed units Require sensor processing system, visible on fence Taut Wire / Tension Sensor Can retrofit existing fence, installation straight forward, normally easy to trouble shoot and repair Require sensor processing system, visible on fence, proper tension must be maintained

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 34 - Sensor Systems - Fixed Barrier/Wall Sensors, Infrared Sensors, Microwave Sensors Strengths and Weaknesses Sensor Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Fixed Barrier / Wall Sensors Invisible Must be installed during construction, difficult or impossible to repair or replace Capacitive Cable None Cable age and degradation cases nuisance problems, requires recalibration, sensor processing required, low use Fiber Optic Cable / Mesh Immune to EMI / RFI interference, proper installation and calibration provide a reliable low nuisance alarm results Fiber cable installation, maintenance, and repair requires special tools and test equipment, require sensor processing Geophone Wall Good immunity to nuisance alarms, very low maintenance for factory delivered sealed units, can be added to existing structures Requires sensor processing system Infrared Sensors Invisible to the un-aided eye, numerous vendors and supplies, large range of sensors for short, long, exterior, and interior applications, can operate with simple sensor processing, passive sensor difficult to detect Visible with proper instrumentation Infrared Beambreak Detector Provide effective "wall" or IR light to detect intrusion into protected zone. Provides coverage for precisely defined area, established technology with numerous vendors, and systems. IR light "visible" with proper equipment, multi beam system required to prevent nuisance alarms Passive Infrared Sensor / Detector (Heat sensor) Passive mode, effective coverage of covered zone, single self contained unit, established technology with numerous vendors, and systems. Need clear zone, limited range cutout contributes to nuisance alarms, will not detect insulated intruder Laser Scanning System Very effective coverage of intrusion zone. Expensive, system is visible and subject to vandalism, contour may present some dead zones Microwave Sensors Invisible, Large selection of types and applications, mature technology Requires signal process and complex setup, installation area must be properly prepared to achieve low nuisance alarm rate, standing water causes alarm problems Microwave Bistatic Effective coverage of large clear areas, can provide high security coverage, sensor processor can be tuned for low nuisance alarms rates Line of sight only, terrain variations cause dead zones, require proper installation and alignment, vegetation must be kept short and standing water prevented Microwave Monostatic Effective coverage or limited areas, range gate prevents out of zone nuisance alarms, numerous vendors, suppliers, and systems for interior use Line of sight only, terrain variation causes dead zone, require proper installation and alignment, vegetation must be kept short and standing water prevented Radar Long range detection and tracking of surface and air targets, works in low to zero visibility conditions Expensive, requires complex control, tuning, setup, and display Radar Vehicle Detectors Special application of monostatic sensor for vehicle detections Works with vehicle and other large objects only

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 35 - Sensor Systems – Other Sensors and Sound Sensors Sensor Systems System Description System Utilization Other Sensors Capacitance Sensor uses capacitance change to measure intrusion into protected zone, change in distance of capacitive plate cause large change in capacitance Point sensor for interior use Dual Technology Passive IR/Microwave Combines IR and Microwave technologies into one sensor Volume for interior and exterior use Magnetic Anomaly Detection (MAD) Sensor used to detect anomaly or changes in the earth's magnetic field Area Exterior Sensor Metal Detectors Uses either induced balance, pulse induced or beat frequency oscillation to detect metal, Mostly for personnel scanning for presence of metal Area Interior and Exterior sensor Piezoelectric Solid state crystal that emits a voltage signal when compressed, also used in microphones Area Interior Sensors Strain Sensitive Cable Fence Sensors, mechanical vibration Barrier for exterior and interior sensors Sound Sensors Acoustic / Audio / Sound Sensor (Microphone) Microphonic device that listens for sounds of intrusion (tools, breathing, heartbeat, etc.), can use infrasonic (less than 20 Hz), audible (20 Hz to 20 KHz) or ultrasonic (above 20 KHz) sounds Intruder causes noise in protected zone Acoustic Detection (Air Turbulence) Acoustic sensor that measures air motion Intruder causes air motion, Volumetric / Interior use only Glass Break Sensors Volume Interior Sensors - Signal Processors Sonar Injection of acoustic energy into water volume to detect intrusion of divers & submersibles Volume sensor for underwater use Ultrasonic Motion Detector Sensor emits ultrasonic sound and detects Doppler shifts caused by intruder Volume sensor for interior use Vibration Sensor High frequency vibrations from oxyacetylene torches, oxygen lance, drills, saws, explosives Barrier Sensor for Interior use Video Motion Sensors Uses video signal input and image processing to detect intrusion into secure area. Methods include pixel comparison, temporal comparison, light threshold, etc. Volume Sensor for Exterior or Interior use Alarm Confirmation Upon tripping of intrusion sensor, video system is directed toward alarm area to confirm and investigate alarm Volume Sensor for Exterior or Interior use Analog Systems Uses analog signal processing techniques to determine alarm conditions and alarm annunciation - Digital Systems Uses digital signal processing techniques to determine alarm conditions and alarm annunciation -

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 36 - Sensor Systems – Other Sensors and Sound Sensors Strengths and Weaknesses Sensor Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Other Sensors Capacitance No moving parts, can be very sensitive to intrusion Requires signal processing, equipment must be electrically isolated Dual Technology Passive IR/Microwave Combine two technologies to ensure intrusion detection and low nuisance alarm rate Limited Magnetic Anomaly Detection (MAD) Can be buried, installed in door ways Will not detect intruder with no metal or magnetic disturbing equipment, require sensor processor, used for military applications Metal Detectors Numerous vendors and supplies, mature technology Will not detect intruder with no metal or magnetic disturbing equipment Piezoelectric Robust, limited signal processing required Requires signal processing, normally installed during construction, difficult to replace / repair Strain Sensitive Cable Easily installed Requires signal processing, cable characteristic changes cause calibration problems Sound Sensors Acoustic / Audio / Sound Sensor (Microphone) Used as secondary back up to other technologies, can be used to listen in on protected zone High nuisance alarm rates for non intrusion sounds, can require sophisticated sensor processing Acoustic Detection (Air Turbulence) Limited Limited vendor support, non standard, limited interior use only, replaceable by numerous other sensor types - Microwave, IR, etc. Glass Break Sensors Easy to install, one device can monitor multiple windows, inexpensive test devices available Requires signal processing, can be bypassed by cutting glass Sonar Provides detection of underwater approaches to valuable structures and systems Expensive, requires advanced sensor processing, output display normally on stand alone display unit Ultrasonic Motion Detector Limited Subject to dead zones, obsolete for intrusion detection Vibration Sensor Effective in monitoring certain intrusion attempt sounds and vibrations Special application with limited use, requires sensor processing Video Motion Sensors Leverages existing video system to added intrusion detection and alarm Requires proper set up and calibration, subject to nuisance alarms Alarm Confirmation Allows easy confirmation of sensor alarms, can be used to tune and adjust sensor processor settings Requires integration of intrusion sensors alarm system with video and video control system Analog Systems Inexpensive, used for very small system Hard to calibrate and adjust, subject to high nuisance alarm rate, falling into disuse Digital Systems Very capable with selected exclusion zones and alarm criteria, wide selection of vendors and technologies, software upgrades possible on existing equipment, systems available to support large camera installations Can be expensive and difficult to set up, confusing array of systems and technologies, still subject to nuisance alarms

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 64 3.6.3 Costs Sensor characteristics are only part of the information required to choose an appropriate system. In addition implementation, maintenance, training, and life expectancy must be included in the selection criteria. Table 37 indicates a relative cost comparison of a sampling of various classes of sensors with L = low, M = medium, and H = high designated as the relative cost factors. Table 37 - Sensor System Relative Cost Comparison Type of Sensor Equipment Installation Maintenance Fence Mounted L L L Taut Wire H H M Electric Field H M M Capacitance M L M Ported Cable H M M Seismic / Acoustic M M L Magnetic H M L Microwave M L H IR M L M Video Motion M L M A more complete cost comparison is included in Table 38. Please note that even though materials costs are similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the tables. Each authority will need to include this factor in implementation and support of the deployed systems. x Sensor Systems – a list of the types of sensors system x Cost of Implementation – rough range of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – including operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – extra or special training expressed as a one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – system life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 38 - Sensor Systems Cost – Binary Sensors, Buried Sensors, Fence Sensor Systems System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Binary Sensors Balance Magnetic Switch $50 to $250 Depends on range, cable style and housing <5% Very Low Maintenance <5% Minimal Training 20+ years Breakwire $50 to $150 Mostly obsolete because wire must be replaced after activation 25+% Activation requires breakwire to be replaced. Wire tension must be adjusted <5% Minimal Training 10+ with no operation Duress Alarm $5 to $150 Hardwire versus RF link, foot switch versus push button or micro-switch <5% Very Low Maintenance <5% Minimal Training 20+ years Electric eye / Photo Electric Eye - See - Infrared Beambreak Detector - below - - - - - Foil - Obsolete - see glass break detectors in the next Table - - - - - Magnetic Switch $5 to $20 Simple low device <5% Very Low Maintenance <5% Minimal Training 20+ years Mechanical Switch $5 to $21 Simple device with limited application 20% Prone to contact failure <5% Minimal Training 10 years Pressure Sensor / Mats / Switch $50 to $150 Limited application 25+% Subject to wear and contact failure, replacement instead of repair <5% Minimal Training 3+ years, depends on use Security Screen $50 to $150 Depends on size 20% Subject to damage when screens are cleaned <5% Minimal Training 5+ years, depends on corrosive environment Buried Sensors Balanced Pressure Buried - Obsolete - - - - - Fiber Optic Cable $20K & up Cable $3 foot & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 10% Minimal maintenance if cable not disturbed 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Geophone Buried $20K & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 20% Geophones may need replacement 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Ported Coax Buried Line $20K & up Cable $3 foot & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 10% Minimal maintenance if cable not disturbed 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Fence Sensor Systems Capacitive Cable $20K & up Cable $3 foot & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 10% Minimal maintenance if cable not disturbed 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Electric Field / Electrostatic Field $20K & up Cable $3 foot & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 10% Minimal maintenance if cable not disturbed 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Fiber Optic Cable / Mesh $60 to $100 a foot Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10 - 15+ years Geophone / Microphone Fence $20K & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 20% Geophones may need replacement 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Taut Wire / Tension Sensor $5K & up Requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 20% High Maintenance, yearly adjustment required 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 39 - Sensor Systems Cost - Fixed Barrier/Wall Sensors, Infrared Sensors, Microwave Sensors System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Fixed Barrier / Wall Sensors Capacitive Cable - Similar to fence systems - - - - - Fiber Optic Cable / Mesh - Similar to fence systems - - - - - Geophone Wall - Similar to fence systems - - - - - Infrared Sensors Infrared Beambreak Detector $200 to $1K Depends on range, pattern, beam pattern, indoor versus outdoor <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years Passive Infrared Sensor / Detector (Heat sensor) $50 to $500 Depends on range, pattern, beam pattern, indoor versus outdoor <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years Laser Scanning System $75K to $150K Estimated Price $100K 5% Recalibration, cleaning 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years Microwave Sensors Microwave Bistatic $3K to $5K System pair (transmitter & receiver) <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Microwave Monostatic $3K to $5K Self contained unit <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Radar $50K to $250K+ Depends on range and software processing 10% Recalibration of exclusion zones, preventive maintenance 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Radar Vehicle Detectors $15K to $30K Self contained unit with RS-232 interface <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 40 - Sensor System - Other Sensors, Sound Sensors, Video Motion Sensors Cost System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Other Sensors Capacitance $300 to $1K Depends on application & processor 10% Minimal maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10 years Dual Technology Passive IR/Microwave $100 to $800 Depends on range, pattern, beam pattern, indoor versus outdoor <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years Magnetic Anomaly Detection (MAD) $1K and up Depends on number of zones, vehicles versus people 5% Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 6 to 10+ years Metal Detectors $200 to $5K+ Depends on configuration, range and operation 10% Minimal maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years Piezoelectric $20K & up System requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 10% Minimal maintenance 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 6 to 10+ years Strain Sensitive Cable $20K & up Cable $3 foot & up System requires software, processor module, power supply and cable 10+% Maintenance dependant of physical abuse. Recalibration required depending on system monitored 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 5 to 10+ years Sound Sensors Acoustic / Audio / Sound Sensor (Microphone) $1K & up Depends on processing methods and equipment 10% Minimal maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Acoustic Detection (Air Turbulence) $1K & up Depends on processing methods and equipment 10% Minimal maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Glass Break Sensors $40 to $150 Built in sensor processing with alarm contact output <5% Very Low Maintenance 10% Glass break simulator required to test 10+ years Sonar $500K to $1M Requires custom design and installation, cost is for single system zone, added zones are less 5% Requires cleaning of marine growth, protection from damage, & realignment 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Ultrasonic Motion Detector - Obsolete - use IR or Dual Technology - - - - - Vibration Sensor - Similar to Acoustic Detector above - - - - - Video Motion Sensors Analog Systems $300 to $600 Single channel <5% Very Low Maintenance 5% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years Digital Systems $2K and up Depends on number of channels, can be either stand alone unit or software running on PC <5% Very Low Maintenance 10% Requires training in theory of operation, calibration and set up 10+ years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 68 3.6.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of Sensor Systems. These include, but are not limited to the following: x Impact of alarm suppression and control on work flow x Impact of “cry wolf” syndrome (ignoring alarms after multiple false alarms) for poorly functioning sensor systems x Legal implications of sensor systems operation or failure to operate x A system for archiving alarm data must be established and supported. This includes, but is not limited to the following: - Legal requirement - Chain of custody - Storage medium selection - Secure and temperature controlled storage area - A method to retrieve and return archived information 3.7 IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS 3.7.1 Technology In order to control personnel access into secured area a method of identification is required. Identification technologies are used to create a credential that can be used by both security personnel and electronic access control systems to uniquely identify authorization status. Security workers use graphics, colors, pictures, and text to help identify personnel. Typically this includes name, a color picture, graphics to identify the authority and additional identification, training, and safety data. For electronic access control, an identification method is embedded into a card to allow reading of unique data. For example, this data could include magnetic encoded information, user biometrics template, or RF identification numbers. 3.7.2 Applications The controlling authority designs the layout and look of the badge, while the ACS data is determined by the technology selected for the access control system. Identification systems provide a method to register personnel, record personal data, encode ACS information and issue a credential – typically called a ‘badge’ or ‘access card’. Tables 41 and 42 provide a reference to available technologies and systems. Columns are as follows: x Identification System – A list of the generic types systems x System Description – A short description of the system x System Utilization – The application of the system x Systems Strengths – Positive attributes of the system x System Weaknesses – Negative attributes of the system

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 41 - Identification Systems Identification Systems System Description System Utilization Photographic Badge System Manual production of ID badges. Photograph taken, developed, cut and installed in badge Low cost, low security Identification Computerized User Database Computer system with database to register system users and save user data Used in conjunction with manual photo or electronic image / biometrics systems Electronic Image Badge System (EIBS) Electronic picture captured into computer database Provide universal biometrics - User Image Biometrics Badge System Additional biometrics data collect into computer system Biometrics registration of user - can include in addition to picture: fingerprints, iris scan, retinal scan, voice print, hand geometry, and signature. Stand Alone Badge System Combines computer database with image and possibly biometrics data Integrated self-contained single station system Networked Badge System Badging Issue clients with central database servers Multiple badge issuing stations Integrated Badge System Badge system data is sent to the Access Control System and other systems Integrates authorized and badged users with access control system and other systems

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 42 –Identification Systems Strengths and Weaknesses Identification Systems System Strengths System Weaknesses Photographic Badge System Low tech Easy to counterfeit, manual control, labor intensive, no computer data search, eventual disappearance of instant film supplies Computerized User Database Provide a searchable database of registered system users Requires computer, database, power back up, and system training Electronic Image Badge System (EIBS) Electronic record of register user's image is saved and retrievable Requires imaging device, support equipment (tripods, lights, etc.) database for storage of non-text data, and user training Biometrics Badge System Adds a verifiable characteristic to user data file Additional expense and training for biometrics system, weakness of some biometrics systems Stand Alone Badge System Inexpensive and simple computer systems Doesn't allow multiple badge issue stations or shared database Networked Badge System Expandable database of system users, enables interface to other systems Need network connectivity to all badge issue station to central database server, special provision required for off line systems resynchronized to master database Integrated Badge System Duplication of data entry of authorized users into ACS not required, allows automated update of user authorization changes, supports adverse termination and real time new user additions, support interface to other systems such as Human Resource, Training, Safety, Legal, etc. Database for ID systems and other systems must be continually updated and synchronized, System vendors attempt to sell same brand ID and ACS system, database synchronization and coordination issues

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 71 3.7.3 Costs In order to determine overall system costs, the selection of the type and scale of the badging system must be determined. The determining factors for the type of systems are the number of badges to be issued and the geographic location of the personnel that will receive badges. Vendor or expert support can help define transit agencies requirements. Table 43 provides a summary of costs. Please note that even though materials costs are similar throughout the US, labor costs vary as much as 3 times and this will affect the amounts shown in the tables. Each authority will need to include this factor in implementation and support of the deployed systems. x Identification System – A list of the types of lighting system x Cost of Implementation – Range of installing system x Cost of Maintenance – including operational costs expressed as a yearly % of implementation x Cost of Training – extra or special training expressed as a one time % of implementation x Life Expectancy – System life expectancy in years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 43 - Identification System Cost System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Commen Photographic Badge System $500 to $2K Obsolete Technology 50 -100% Film Supplies expensive, dependant on badge production 25% Procedures, operation, ba production Computerized User Database $2 to $5K Includes computer system & data base software 10-20% Software costs included in system maintenance, Operator data base update 25% Data base en procedures a data back up Electronic Image Badge System (EIBS) $2K to $25K System varies from Digital Camera / Computer / Ink Jet printer with basic software to system with badge printer ($6K) 15-25% Badge supplies (see below), Badge printer ribbon or printer ink, dependant on badge production 25% Badge produ procedures & printer maintenance Biometrics Badge System $2K to $5K Added cost for Biometrics Registration System < 5% Requires cleaning 50% Thorough tra required to en proper registr Stand Alone Badge System $3K to $30K Stand Alone Workstation or Workstation for Networked system, includes data base and EIBS 25-45% See above - Computer Data Base & EIBS - See above - Computer Da Base & EIBS Networked Badge System $4K to $25 Network System includes file server, network interface, and advanced data base, network not included 5-20% System operator maintenance 0% Uses existing support syste Badge Supplies - Price vary widely by quantity and security options (Holograms, overlay, custom art work / printing) - - - - PVC Plain $0.10 to $0.50 Price each n/a n/a n/a n/a PVC Magnetic Stripe $1 to $2 Magnetic Stripe type changes price n/a n/a n/a n/a Proximity Card $3 to $5 Passive RFID card n/a n/a n/a n/a Contact Smart Card $8 to $15 Memory capacity changes prices n/a n/a n/a n/a Contact Less Smart Card $10 to $20 Memory capacity changes prices n/a n/a n/a n/a

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 73 3.7.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of an identification system. These include, but are not limited to the following. x Procedures and method for badge issuing must be created and supported x A badge look, layout and design must be: x Unique and easy to identify (determine use of colors, text, holograms, etc.) x Difficult to counterfeit x Difficult to duplicate x Security and privacy control x Method to prevent unauthorized badge issue x Protection of the identification data base x The need for a badge issuing area x Including secure physical space x Computer grade electric power x Network connectivity to remote badging systems x Network connectivity to access control systems 3.8 DATA FUSION, DISPLAY AND CONTROL SYSTEMS While the term “Intrusion Detection System” can be used to describe a single, stand-alone system (i.e., a “sensor” unit), it is more often used to describe a complete and integrated system that defines, controls, and displays (see Paragraph 1.3) security areas and intrusion into those areas. As such, no Intrusion Detection System would be complete – or effective - without the capability to collect and merge data from various security-related sensors; digest or de-conflict that data and display it in a pre-defined manner; and permit the subsequent control or manipulation of related response systems. For this reason, it is important to understand a few things about Data Fusion, Display and Control Systems. 3.8.1 Technologies A single software application, or a suite of applications, usually combined with some level of computer hardware that permits the public transportation security staff to ingest real-time data from a multitude of security- related sensors; merge that sensor data into a cohesive format ("data fusion"); display the results in easy-to-understand terms on high- quality monitors or a "video wall"; and allow the user to retain the capability to exercise transportation system or security control functions through the manipulation of that data.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 44 - Data Fusion, Display, and Control Systems Data Fusion, Display, & Control Systems System Description System Utilization System Strengths System Weaknesses The term "Data Fusion, Display, and Control" applies to an extremely wide (and developing) variety of systems or software applications from a widely diverse field of vendors or integrators that cover the complete gamut of data fusion, display and control management. Most of these systems or software applications are similar to the types described and discussed below. Actual systems and software titles, applications and vendors number in the hundreds (if not thousands). Therefore, it is recommended that specific research be conducted by the user to identify the specific system or software application (and providing vendor), which best meets the data fusion, display, and control requirements of that user. (See the four separate data fusion, display, and control system descriptions discussed below) A software application, or a suite of applications, that permits the user to ingest real-time data from a multitude of security-related sensors, merge (i.e., "data fusion") that data into a cohesive format; display the results in easy-to- understand terms on high-quality monitors; and retain the capability to exercise control functions through the manipulation of that data. Generally used within a security operations center or watch space on computers running the application. Coupled with high- resolution color display monitors, and incorporating carefully tailored and defined security "zones", these data fusion, display, and control software applications streamline security operations. Primary strength is the manageable fusion of data from disparate sensor systems into a format usable by the security professional. Numerous secondary strengths include reduction of software cost (multiple software titles not required); reduction of manpower requirements; and improved security operations. Can be difficult to find the right data fusion, display, and control software applications to meet a particular facility's requirements. Many applications focus just on certain systems, such as camera systems, or magnetic sensors, as opposed to multiple sensor types. Frequently not "scalable, i.e., can require upgrades or addition of non-compatible software applications when adding or upgrading overall security sensors.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 75 3.8.2 Applications A common term used within the military is Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (C4I). All of these capabilities come into play in an effective Data Fusion, Display, & Control System. The level of application involved with any one of these capabilities is entirely driven by the level of security protection desired by a respective transportation facility, the number of sensors being monitored and the number of display workstations in use. Additional examples are provided in table 44, shown above. 3.8.3 Costs Costs for an effective Data Fusion, Display, & Control System are difficult to estimate because of the large number of determining factors (variables) that control the cost of such a system. The size and type of the transportation facility; the degree of security protection required by the facility or system; the level of system sophistication required by the security staff; the number of IDS sensors and subsystems that must be monitored or displayed; and the degree of communications required - all of these factors (and more) contribute directly to the final cost of a Data Fusion, Display, & Control System. A Physical Security Survey would have to be conducted and overall security system requirements established for a transportation facility before an accurate cost estimate could be developed. Overall costs for an effective Data Fusion, Display, & Control System can range between several thousand dollars to hundreds of thousands of dollars dependent on the above factors. Table 45 provides a summary of costs.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 45 - Data Fusion, Display, and Control Systems Cost Data Fusion, Display and Control System Rough Cost of Implementation Comments Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comments Cost of Training % one time Comments Life Expectancy Various Commercial Systems (such as Coastal Surveillance and Display System (CSDS), Security Data Management System (SDMS), and Visual Security Operations Center (VSOC)) Varies Costs for a Data Fusion, Display and Control System are too wide-ranging to estimate in this table. A cost estimate requires an assessment of a transit facility's requirements. 5 to 10% Cost based on many factors, including the number of sites & users, and complexity of integrating with existing transit facility sensors and software. 10 to 15 % Cost based on many factors, including the number of sites & users, the training level desired and amount of travel required by the trainer. 5 to 10 years

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 77 3.8.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of data fusion, display, and control systems. In order for data fusion, display and control to take place, Data and Power Transmission must be included in the overall initial system wiring and power design and subsequent implementation. Wiring, power and environmental concerns to be considered include the following: x Cabled Systems – Wire and Fiber Optic x Twisted Pair x Coaxial Cable x Fiber Optic – preferred medium of data transmission x RF Systems - how vulnerable? x Various radio frequency transmission x FCC or unlicensed channel x Possible interference and jamming x Possible interception x Required Signal Bandwidth - who provides and at what level? Cable or phone line? x Low for binary signal x Moderate for control signal (example camera pan/tilt/zoom) x High for video x Power Requirement - how much electrical power is needed? x Low for data x Medium for control (example – camera pan/tilt/zoom system) x High for lighting x Power Systems - what type of power system is in use? x Utility Power x Emergency Power (on site back up) x UPS (4 hours if no Emergency Power, 20 minutes otherwise) x Transmission Architecture - what type of architecture will be used? x Point to Point x Multiplex x Network x Transmission Distance - how far and how will it be accomplished? x Repeaters x Signal Boosters x Equalization x Security - what level will be required? x Encryption x Physical Protection x Line Supervision x Back Up - what emergency spares will be kept on-hand? x Redundant Links

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 78 x Spare Cables x Other Spare Parts x Environmental - what role (if any) will the local weather play in the security system? x Temperature extremes (high and low) x Weather (rain, snow, icing, flooding etc.) x Physical (topographic conditions) x Lightning and Transients (electrical grounding) x Seismic events (earthquakes) In addition to the above wiring, power, and environmental concerns, actual system hardware must also be considered, including computer systems, network servers and routers; small and large screen display systems, including "video-wall" systems; and all related alarm display panels or communication networks. 3.9 CRISIS MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE 3.9.1 Technologies The term "Crisis Management Software" applies to an extremely wide (and developing) variety of software applications from a widely diverse field of providing vendors or integrators that cover the complete gamut of crisis management. Most of these software applications fall into one of the six primary crisis management software categories that are described and discussed in Table 46. Frequently, crisis management software packages will cover most potential crisis or hazard situations in a general way. Some "tailoring" of the software may be required for the facility. Actual software titles, applications and vendors number in the hundreds (if not thousands). In addition, hundreds of companies exist that will custom tailor either existing software to a requirement, or create a custom software package for a specific or unique requirement. Therefore, it is recommended that research be conducted to identify the specific software application (and providing vendor) that best meets the crisis management requirements of a user.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 46 - Crisis Management Software Crisis Management Software System Description System Utilization Crisis Management Software (See the separate software category descriptions discussed below) A software application, or suite of software applications, that allows a First Responder, Scene Commander, Crisis Manager or other emergency response personnel to adequately manage and or mitigate an emergency or crisis situation. Software is pre-installed in reliably backed-up mainframe, desktop, laptop, notebook or personal data assistant (PDA) computers. An initial training session upon software installation and startup is conducted for all appropriate emergency personnel, along with regular refresher training sessions being conducted for designated personnel. Ideally this all takes place prior to the actual occurrence of any crisis event. This applies to each of the six applications listed below. Emergency Management Software A software application, or suite of software applications, that allow a First Responder, Scene Commander, Crisis Manager, or other emergency response personnel to adequately manage and/or mitigate an emergency or crisis situation. Business Continuity Software A software application, or suite of software applications, that allow a First Responder, Scene Commander, Crisis Manager, Business or Financial Managers, or other emergency response personnel to adequately manage and/or mitigate a corporate or facility business during or after an emergency or crisis situation. Disaster Recovery Software A software application, or suite of software applications, that allow a First Responder, Scene Commander, Crisis Manager, or other emergency response personnel to adequately manage and/or mitigate damage or injuries while restoring order during an emergency or crisis situation caused by a disaster - natural or otherwise. System Backup or Restoration Software A software application, or suite of software applications, that allow the First Responder, Scene Commander, Crisis Manager, Information Technology (IT) Manager, or other emergency response personnel to adequately manage and/or mitigate an information technology-related emergency or crisis situation. Environmental, Health, and Safety (EH&S) Software A software application, or suite of software applications, that allow a First Responder, Scene Commander, Crisis Manager, EH&S Manager, or other emergency response personnel to adequately manage and/or mitigate environmental, health, or safety-related damage or injuries during or after an emergency or crisis situation. Vulnerability Assessment (VA) Software A software application, or suite of software applications, that allow site management or emergency planning personnel to adequately assess a facilities' vulnerability due to natural disaster or intentional assault PRIOR to the onset of an emergency or crisis situation.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 47 - Crisis Management Software Strengths and Weaknesses Crisis Management Software System Strengths System Weaknesses Crisis Management Software A properly installed and managed "crisis management system" (software application and hardware system) provides users with a reliable and easily accessed and display database assets. The system would include emergency plans, available personnel, required material and expected reference material. This applies to all six applications listed below. Requires a strong management support to develop an adequate overall crisis management software program and to maintain quality software and hardware assets. It needs preliminary and follow-up personnel training. Any shortfalls in the installation or use of the related software application constitutes a weakness (or potential system failure) in the overall program. Emergency Management Software Assists in both real time management and post event analysis. Must overcome user resistance to new workflow and data entry methods. Business Continuity Software Enables a business to maintain cash flow. May impact normal non emergency operations Disaster Recovery Software Provides a check list for recovery System must be carefully crafted to match recovery requirements and must be updated regularly. System Backup or Restoration Software Allows quick recovery of IT and related systems. Backup procedure may not be followed. Data back up may be corrupted Environmental, Health, and Safety (EH&S) Software Tuned to EH&S requirements Complex and sometime not consistent with other systems. Vulnerability Assessment (VA) Software See additional data in Chapter 4. Weaknesses in application can seriously impact a facilities' ability to properly plan for, or mitigate, potential damages or injuries due to an emergency or crisis situation

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 81 3.9.2 Applications A few of the general categories of crisis management include Emergency Management, Business Continuity, Disaster Recovery, System Backup or Restoration, and Environmental/Safety software. Most Crisis Management software will fall into one of these categories. Some software applications may be included as part of a larger hardware system procurement and be more specialized. For example, a large scale Access Control System will also include system management software that may include one or more crisis management applications. In general, it can be said that Crisis Management Software is software that when combined with a related hardware system, assists the user in dealing with unplanned or unexpected intrusions, emergencies, or incidents that threaten a facility's operations, personnel, or physical assets. 3.9.3 Costs As is typical with most software applications, the purchase, implementation, training and maintenance costs associated with Crisis Management Software can vary widely depending on many factors. It is very difficult to estimate these software costs beyond providing the wide range of between a few hundred dollars per single user-license for a simple application - up to several hundred thousands of dollars for a complete software application support package that includes multiple users, on-site training, follow-on support, future upgrades, etc. Software costs also depend on whether the software is government or commercially developed and marketed; the level of application complexity; the number of licenses and user-copies required; the level of any custom software adaptation that may be needed; and the degree of software implementation training or follow-on support that may be required. It is required that a Physical Security Review be conducted at the transit facility to establish software and data requirements, and for an accurate Crisis Management Software cost estimate to be developed.

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 48 - Crisis Management Software Cost Type of Software Rough Cost of Implementation Comment Cost of Maintenance & Operation % per year Comment Cost of Training % one time Comment Life Expectancy Emergency Management Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Refer to Paragraph 34.9.3 10 to 20% Computer system life Business Continuity Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 10 to 20% Computer system life Disaster Recovery Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 10 to 20% Computer system life System Backup or Restoration Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 10 to 20% Computer system life Environmental, Health, and Safety (EH&S) Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 10 to 20% Computer system life Vulnerability Assessment (VA) Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Costs for this type of software is too wide-ranging to estimate in this table. A cost estimate requires an assessment of a transit facility's requirements. Refer to Paragraph 3.9.3 Cost based on many factors, including the number of sites & users, and complexity of integrating with existing transit facility software. 10 to 20% Cost based on many factors, including the number of sites & users, the training level desired and amount of travel required by the trainer. Computer system life

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook 83 3.9.4 Other Factors There are other factors that must also be considered in the implementation of crisis management software. These include, but are not limited to the following: x Software configuration management within the public transportation facility system, and whether it is managed at the city, county, state, or federal level x Compatibility with other software currently in use both internal (local) and external to the facility (with city, county, state, or federal systems) x Future software scalability, upgrades, and maintenance x Requirements for initial and follow-on user training 3.10 OTHER SYSTEMS This section contains of list of technologies and systems used to provide a complete security solution. These are systems that are different in scope from the Intrusion Detection Systems and supporting access control systems, which is the primary subject of this report. Not all systems listed are required for all transit agencies, and in some cases, additional systems may be required. Table 49 provides a list of the systems that are not addressed in more detail in this Handbook. Columns are as follows: x System Name – Common name for system x System Description – Brief description of system x System Utilization – How system is used and area of application x Comments – Addition comments

Intrusion Detection for Public Transportation Facilities Handbook Table 49 - Other Systems NOT Addressed Systems NOT Addressed System Description System Utilization Comments Asset Tracking Systems Including Keys, Cards, Security Tokens Safety and Security Prevent security breaches by lost keys and other access devices Computer Security Firewalls and update software and hardware systems Safety and Security Prevent hacker, crackers, and inside jobs Back Up Data Transmission Systems Cable, RF, Fiber Optics Method and means to send security and safety signals and data throughout enterprise Need back up, recovery plans, and alternative routes Follow on to events discussed in the contingency plan Document Protection & Destruction Protection and intentional destruction of documents and records Methods to store paper documents To prevent unauthorized use and distribution. Need legal input Drug / Substance Abuse Checks on personnel, full-time, part-time, temporary, contractors, and visitors Safety and Security Need legal and Human Resources input Facility "Hardening" Strengthening of primary supports and installation of improved exterior Facility doors and windows Safety and Security Steel support beams, doors and shatter-proof windows to mitigate personnel injuries and improve bombing survivability Fire & Life Safety Integrate Fire and Life Safety into security system design Safety and Security All security systems must comply with local/state/Federal fire codes Personnel or Background Checks Checks on personnel, full-time, part-time, temporary, contractors, and visitors Safety and Security Prevent "inside jobs" Power and Power Supplies Electrical power to operate security systems Power to all security systems Need back up, recovery plans, and alternative supplies and sources Power Back Up Systems Batteries, UPS, standby electrical power diesel generators Provide power for continuous system operations Needed for all computer, video, access control, and IDS systems Toxic Sensors Sensors to detect nuclear, radiological, chemical, and biological contaminants Sensing of contaminants Expensive and exotic technologies required for effective detector, consulting expertise required for proper selection and application Training (Periodic, Special, and Emergency) For all personnel, full-time, part-time, temporary, contractors, and visitors Safety, Security, and efficiency Applies to operations, maintenance, and repair Vehicle Inspection Methods to inspect vehicles (car, trucks, buses, etc.) for explosives and toxic material Sensing of contaminants High to Low tech solutions: Hand inspection, mirror, X-ray, Gamma Rays, dogs, electronic sensors, etc.