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Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2019. Pedestrian Safety Relative to Traffic-Speed Management. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25618.
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69 AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety. 2015 Traffic Culture Change Index. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, Washington, D.C., 2016. Aarts, L., and I. Schagen. Driving Speed and the Risk of Road Crashes: A Review. Accident Analysis and Preven- tion, Vol. 38, 2006, pp. 215–224. AASHTO. AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th ed. American Association of Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2011. Agerholm, N., D. Knudsen, and K. Variyeswaran. Speed-Calming Measures and Their Effect on Driving Speed— Test of a New Technique Measuring Speeds Based on GNSS Data. Transportation Research Part F, Vol. 46, 2017, pp. 263–270. ARRB Group Project Team. Evaluation of the Fixed Digital Speed Camera Program in New South Wales. Prepared for Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales, 2005. Bella, F., and M. Silvestri. Effects of Safety Measures on Driver’s Speed Behavior at Pedestrian Crossings. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 83, 2015, pp. 111–124. Blomberg, R.D., and A.M. Cleven. Pilot Test of Heed the Speed, A Program to Reduce Speeds in Residential Neigh- borhoods. Report No. DOT HS 810 648, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2006. Blomberg, R.D., F.D. Thomas III, and B.J. Marziani. Demonstration and Evaluation of the Heed the Speed Pedestrian Safety Program. Report No. DOT HS 811 515. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C., 2012. Boodlal, L., et al. Factors Influencing Operating Speeds and Safety on Rural and Suburban Roads. Report FHWAHRT-15-030, Federal Highway Administration, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, McLean, VA., 2015. Brude U., and J. Larsson. What Roundabout Design Provides the Highest Possible Safety? Nordic Road Transport Research, 2000, pp. 12:17–21. CDOT. City of Chicago Automated Enforcement Program. Chicago Department of Transportation, Chicago, IL, 2016. Chen, L.C., R. Ewing, C.E. McKnight, R. Srinivasan, and M. Rose. Safety Countermeasures and Crash Reduc- tion in New York City—Experience and Lessons Learned. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 50, 2013, pp. 312–322. City and County of Denver. Vision Zero Action Plan. Denver, CO, 2017. City and County of San Francisco. Policy Analysis Report Presented to Board of Supervisors. San Francisco, CA, November 18, 2016. City and County of San Francisco. Two-year Action Strategy 2017–2018. San Francisco, CA, 2017. City of Alexandria. Speed Reducer Program. n.d. Available: https://www.alexandriava.gov/localmotion/info/ default.aspx?id=77924. City of Austin. 2016–2018 Action Plan. Austin, TX, 2016. City of Boston. Boston’s New Default Speed Limit 25 mph Effective Jan. 9, 2017. Published November 30, 2016. Available: https://www.boston.gov/news/bostons-new-default-speed-limit-25-mph-effective-jan-9-2017. City of Cambridge. Brattle Street Traffic Calming Project Evaluation. Cambridge, MA, 2012. City of Chicago. Vision Zero Action Plan 2017–2019. Chicago, IL, 2017. City of Los Angeles. Vision Zero Action Plan. Los Angeles, CA, 2015. City of New York. Vision Zero Action Plan. New York, NY, 2014. City of New York. Vision Zero Four-Year Report. New York, NY, 2018. City of Philadelphia. Three-Year Vision Zero Action Plan. Philadelphia, PA, 2017. City of Portland. Saving Lives with Safe Streets: Vision Zero Action Plan. Portland, OR, 2016. City of Seattle. Vision Zero Action Plan. Seattle, WA, 2015. References

70 Pedestrian Safety Relative to Traffic-Speed Management Corkle, J., J.L. Giese, and M.M. Marti. Investigating the Effectiveness of Traffic-Calming Strategies on Driver Behavior, Traffic Flow, and Speed. Minnesota Local Road Research Board, Minnesota Department of Transportation, October 2001. CTCDC Meeting Minutes. Department of Transportation, November 2, 2017. Available: http://www.dot.ca.gov/ trafficops/ctcdc/docs/CTCDC-11-02-17.pdf. Cunningham, C. M., J.E. Hummer, and J.P. Moon. Analysis of Automated Speed Enforcement Cameras in Charlotte, North Carolina. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2078, 2001, pp. 127–134. https://doi.org/10.3141/2078-17. Davis, G.A. Relating Severity of Pedestrian Injury to Impact Speed in Vehicle–Pedestrian Crashes: Simple Threshold Model. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1773, 2001, pp. 108–113. https://doi.org/10.3141/1773-13. District of Columbia. 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References 71 Gitelman, V., R. Carmel, F. Pesahov, and S. Chen. Changes in Road-User Behaviors following the Installation of Raised Pedestrian Crosswalks Combined with Preceding Speed Humps, on Urban Arterials. Transportation Research Part F, Vol. 46, 2017, pp. 356–372. Gonzalo-Orden, H., M. Rojo, H. Pérez-Acebo, and A. Linares. Traffic-Calming Measures and Their Effect on the Variation of Speed. Transportation Research Part 18, Vol. 18, 2016, pp. 349–356. Goodwin, A., B. Kirley, L. Sandt, W. Hall, L. Thomas, N. O’Brien, and D. Summerlin. Countermeasures That Work: A Highway Safety Countermeasures Guide for State Highway Safety Offices, 8th ed. Report No. DOT HS 811 727, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C., 2015. Greedipally, S.R., D. Blower, C. Flannagan, R. Wunderlich, and D. Lord. In-depth Investigation of Factors That Contributed to the Decline in Fatalities from 2008 to 2012 in the United States. 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Measures that are effective at reducing speed, such as speed humps and mini traffic circles, are sometimes used in low-speed areas such as school zones. But they are often not recommended or allowed (via local policy) on the higher-speed streets typically associated with the highest injury severity for pedestrians.

For those higher-speed streets, redesigning them to communicate lower speed, such as through a roadway-reconfiguration effort, can effectively accomplish the goal of lowering speed. In the absence of street redesign, however, another effective current solution is enforcement, and particularly automated speed enforcement (ASE) that frees police to focus on other issues and that is free from implicit or explicit bias. It is important to carefully consider community context when selecting locations to employ ASE, to avoid disproportionately burdening any historically disadvantaged communities that surround the typically high-speed streets that need to be addressed.

The TRB National Cooperative Highway Research Program's NCHRP Synthesis 535: Pedestrian Safety Relative to Traffic-Speed Management aims to document what is known about strategies and countermeasures to address pedestrian safety via traffic-speed management in urban environments. For example, the City of San Francisco regularly uses curb extensions as traffic-calming devices on its streets. However, the political and land use context of each city heavily influences the types of treatments that are considered feasible for each city. Thus, the City of Los Angeles has had to find alternatives to both ASE and road diets, the latter of which have been the subject of intense public backlash in some cases.

These realities—that speed management can be fraught with difficulty—have spurred creative thinking about how to work within contextual confines, resulting in some particularly noteworthy and promising practices. For example, the City of Nashville anticipated potential backlash against speed-management efforts and thus chose to work with advocacy groups to identify areas of the city desiring walkability improvements. By installing walkability improvements in those areas first, city leaders created instant wins that could be used as leverage for future projects.

The authors of the synthesis found there may be a need for greater clarity about the speed-limit-setting process, as well as for greater collaboration between local and state agencies when state roads run through urban areas. In particular, it may be worth exploring whether there is a need for a framework that will foster collaboration between local and state staff on safety initiatives such as achieving flexibility in roadway design, changing laws or regulations that govern speed-limit setting, and finding a balance between local safety needs and regional mobility needs. Such a framework may support both local and state agencies attempting to address safety issues and reach larger goals as articulated through movements like Vision Zero.

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