Women’s Issues in Transportation: Summary of the 4th International Conference, Volume 2: Technical Papers (2011)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

246 Appreciation of Gender Differences in Development of Qualitative Level of Service for Sidewalks Purnima Parida, Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), New Delhi, India M. Parida, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India Pedestrian level of service indicates the environmental qualities of a pedestrian space and serves as a guide in developing standards for pedestrian facilities. Pedes- trian space needs to be designed in consideration of human convenience and must be qualitatively suit- able to the needs of users. Additional environmental factors that contribute to the walking experience and consequently to the perceived level of service—such as comfort, security, and attractiveness—should also be considered. The central hypothesis in this paper is that gender difference plays an important role in the impor- tance attached to different parameters of the walk- ability index. With this hypothesis, the difference in perception of male and female pedestrians for different parameters of pedestrian facilities has been analyzed. Five parameters were identified: sidewalk width, side- walk surface, obstruction, security, and comfort. equal numbers of male and female pedestrians in different land uses in Delhi, India, were interviewed with a view to understanding the variation in perception. They were asked to rate the importance of the five param- eters according to their needs and requirements on a 5-point scale ranging from most important to immate- rial and their response on a satisfaction rating regard- ing the sidewalk facility they were using on a 5-point scale ranging from excellent to poor. The importance ratings were called weights attached to the parameter. This study found that the responses of male and female pedestrians in terms of mean relative weights for all five parameters differed from one another. The needs and requirements of pedestrians are sel-dom given importance in the planning and design of road infrastructure in metropolitan cities in developing countries. Proper guidelines and standards for sidewalks and crosswalks are yet to be established. Pedestrian facilities can be designed in a rational manner on the basis of detailed study of pedestrian flow. level of service (loS) of sidewalks has been discussed in detail in different highway capacity manuals including the u.S. Highway Capacity Manual (1). loS for a sidewalk is expressed in terms of pedestrian volume alone; 15-min pedestrian volume for loS A is 360 and for loS e it is 1,700. Capacity values are available for different widths of sidewalk in India (2). Indian guidelines do not provide pedestrian volume figures for different loSs. Besides the quantitative analysis, the perception of users—the aspect of quality—should also be taken into account while estimating capacity for different pedestrian facilities. Khisty developed an evaluation methodology for assessment of the qualitative elements of facilities used by pedestrians by independent observers familiar with the situation (3). Sarkar advocated that qualitative evaluation of pedestrian precincts is important for pro- viding adequate facilities for the elderly, the physically challenged, and children, who are most inclined to use this mode of travel (4). Gallin undertook a study of the main roads of Western Australia aimed at developing guidelines for assuming the loS of pedestrian facilities (5). In all these studies, the difference in the subjective response of male and female pedestrians was not consid- ered for the planning and design of sidewalks. Responses of female pedestrians toward certain elements of side-

247DeveloPMeNT oF QuAlITATIve level oF SeRvICe FoR SIDeWAlKS walks likely differ from responses of their male coun- terparts. There is a need to understand these differential responses so that a methodology for sidewalks can be evolved that is sensitive to gender differences. BackGround Studies on women’s and men’s travel have resulted in a reasonable understanding of the relationship between gender differences and travel patterns. Rosenbloom ana- lyzed work done on this topic and concluded that (a) women’s and men’s aggregate travel behaviors are still far from equal on a number of measures, whereas trends toward convergence may be slowing; (b) disaggregating behavior often reveals distinct differences between the sexes; and (c) so many potentially explanatory variables in society are tied to gender that it may not be relevant whether sex or other intensely gendered variables, such as household role or living alone in old age, explain dif- ferences between men and women (6). Gender difference in travel is prominent in a study of older drivers in the united States. older women make up the largest percentage of all nondrivers, and a high pro- portion have limited incomes and household support with which to address their travel needs. The study suggested that mobility losses do not fall evenly on men and women or among different groups of men and women (7). Handy explored the role of community design as an influencing parameter for the travel behavior of women (8). In studies of the link between community design and travel behavior, gender has been just one more variable to control for rather than the focus of analysis, despite the fact that it has been a significant factor in many stud- ies. Research on the relationship between community design and travel behavior points toward an understand- ing of causal relationships in building the evidence base for community design policies in general and those tar- geted to the needs of women in particular. Quantitative approaches can be used to explore not just travel behav- ior but also the travel needs, constraints, attributes, and preferences that shape behavior and can produce new insights into the role of community design as facilita- tor, constraint, or both. Qualitative studies focused on women can provide deeper insights into these questions than quantitative studies alone. Security is a major concern of women compared with men when it comes to using transportation systems. Schulz and Gilbert presented transit security in relation to women in the united States (9). A transit system after 3 years of its initial opening was forced to organize a special police force to deal with the problem of crowd- ing. Within 8 years of its opening, the transit system was being criticized for the sexual harassment of women and girls who, although they accounted for only about a quar- ter of all peak-hour passengers were forced to endure jostling and unwelcome sexual contact. The cross-class nature of these incidents was viewed as “a violation of the laws of decency.” In terms of security, gender differ- ence is quite prominent with respect to transportation system operation. All these studies establish that travel patterns are linked to gender differences. They also point toward a gray area in the community design policies tar- geted to women. Studies relating gender differences and travel behavior in the Indian context are limited. As part of a technol- ogy development and research program funded by the overseas Development Administration, the Transport Research laboratory undertook studies of urban travel behavior in Pune, India (10). This study emphasized understanding the travel behavior of women. It was observed that women perceived bus service in Pune to be inferior to the local train service in terms of convenience, comfort, and safety, largely due to the existence of female-only carriages on trains. Interestingly, however, women appeared disinterested in the idea of female-only buses (perhaps due to earlier unhappy experiences when sections of buses were caged for female security) and preferred that more buses be provided. More frequent service would create a less crowded and safer environ- ment in which all, but especially females, can travel in comfort. conTexT of delhi sTudy area Delhi, the national capital, is the center of attraction for people searching for better job opportunities and better living standards. The total area of Delhi is 1,486 km2. Its population has grown rapidly from 1.7 million in 1951 to 13.7 million in 2001. However, its vehicle popula- tion exceeds the total vehicle population of three mega cities in India: Mumbai, Calcutta, and Bangalore. The share of road transport infrastructure in land use is the highest in the country. The per capita road availability of roads in Delhi is 2.6 m. The vehicle ownership rate is also very high compared with other metropolitan cities in India. The road network in Delhi is based on a hier- archy of roads ranging from arterial roads designed to carry fast through traffic to collector roads. The existing road design does not cater to the needs of pedestrians. Footpaths are either not available or are poorly main- tained; they are provided on the road space that is left after providing road space for motor vehicles. A mass rapid transit system has recently become operational. It has been useful in enhancing the share of the public transport system. The increase in public transport usage will also induce an increase in the share of walk trips. The cosmopolitan character of Delhi makes it a good choice for a case study.

248 WoMeN’S ISSueS IN TRANSPoRTATIoN, voluMe 2 research MeThodoloGy Pedestrian loS indicates the environmental qualities of a pedestrian space and serves as a guide for develop- ment of standards for pedestrian facilities. Pedestrian spaces need to be designed in consideration of human convenience and must be qualitatively suitable to the specific requirements of human beings. The plan- ning and design methods for pedestrians suggested by many researchers are based primarily on vehicular traffic flow theory. Additional environmental factors that contribute to the walking experience and there- fore to the perceived loS—such as comfort, conve- nience, security, and attractiveness—should also be considered. The qualitative method of developing loS models incorporates the perceptions and needs of the pedestrians implicitly. Pedestrians are asked to iden- tify their requirements—for example, the importance of various attributes of sidewalks. Pedestrians of vari- ous age groups and both genders have different needs and they are neglected in conventional methods. In the qualitative approach of developing loS, all these fac- tors are considered. In this study, a psychometric method was adopted to develop relative weights of five attributes of sidewalk facilities and satisfaction ratings of pedestrians. Twelve locations for qualitative assessment of the sidewalk facil- ity were selected in Delhi. The locations were selected on the basis of sidewalk width and pedestrian volumes and were spatially distributed throughout the city of Delhi. For qualitative assessment of sidewalk facilities, a ques- tionnaire-based survey was conducted. Pedestrians using the sidewalk facility were asked a set of questions, with a view to ascertain the loS the pedestrians experience by using a particular sidewalk facility. For qualitative evaluation of pedestrian facilities, a form was designed using a rating scale concept. The ini- tial stage of this method involved identifying parameters for inclusion in a questionnaire, reflecting the important aspects of loS experienced by pedestrians. Five param- eters were included in the questionnaire. Three param- eters pertained to the physical evaluation of the sidewalk facility, which included sidewalk width, sidewalk surface, and obstruction. The two user factors were security and comfort. An equal number of male and female pedestri- ans were asked to rate the importance (how important good performance is to them) and performance (indicat- ing bad or good condition) on a 5-point scale. A detailed description of all the factors is given below. Physical Characteristics of Sidewalks • Footpath surface: A smooth surface without any cracks or bumps, for comfortable walking; • Footpath width: A measure, in meters, of the width of the sidewalk available to pedestrians; and • Obstructions: Impediments such as an electric pole, a tree, a garbage bin, and hoardings. The number of obstructions per kilometer of sidewalk was assessed. User Characteristics of Sidewalks • Security: The feeling of being safe is the most important governing factor. A pedestrian should feel safe during the day as well as at night while using a sidewalk. Characteristics of security include provision of adequate street lighting, police patrolling at night, and sufficient activities in surrounding areas to ensure security. • Comfort: A pedestrian needs to be shielded from inclement weather such as harsh sun and rain. Trees pro- tect pedestrians but if planted in an unplanned manner also act as an obstruction. The location and species of trees need to be carefully planned. Curbs must be mount- able so that pedestrians can easily climb up and down them. Provision of chairs, benches, and restrooms add to the comfort of pedestrians. onsite assessment of 30 sidewalk facilities was carried out by the authors in various locations spatially distrib- uted throughout the city of Delhi. on the basis of the weights achieved from primary surveys and the scores assigned by the onsite assessment, attitudinal scores were estimated for these locations. Survey Locations The details of locations for the qualitative survey are pre- sented in Table 1. TABLE 1 Details of Locations for Pedstrian Survey Survey Number location land use Type 1 CRRI okhla Tank Institutional and residential 2 AIIMS Institutional 3 Azadpur Commercial 4 Ashram Residential 5 Janakpuri Residential 6 ITo Public–semipublic 7 Cannaught Place Central business district 8 Hauz Khas Institutional and residential 9 vivek vihar Residential 10 Rohini Residential 11 ISBT, Ajmeri Gate Terminal 12 Shahdara Residential and commercial Note: CRRI = Central Road Research Institute, AIIMS = All India Institute of Medical Sciences, ITo = Indian Tourism office, ISBT = interstate bus terminus.

249DeveloPMeNT oF QuAlITATIve level oF SeRvICe FoR SIDeWAlKS Survey Execution A simple random sampling strategy was used to select a respondent from the pedestrian stream. The survey was conducted on working days from 6:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. to capture people using the footpath with various pur- poses. The data were used to ascertain the importance and satisfaction rating of each attribute. The weights assigned to importance and satisfaction were used to develop a qualitative loS of sidewalks. Characteristics of Male and Female Pedestrians The socioeconomic characteristics of male and female pedestrians were collected pertaining to age, profession, purpose of trip, frequency of trip, and response to the reason for nonuse of sidewalks if they were available. The comparative graphs are shown in Figures 1 to 6. An effort was made to include respondents from all age groups, but, because of their greater mobility, 63.4% of men and 50.3% of women surveyed were in the 21- to 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 �20 21–40 41–50 51–60 �60 Age (years) Sa mp le (% ) Male Female Sa mp le (% ) Male Female 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Retired Housewife Student Service Other Profession FIGURE 1 Distribution of male and female pedestrians, by age. FIGURE 2 Distribution of male and female pedestrians, by profession. Sa mp le (% ) Male Female 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Work Education Shopping Recreation Other Purpose FIGURE 3 Distribution of male and female pedestrians, by purpose.

250 WoMeN’S ISSueS IN TRANSPoRTATIoN, voluMe 2 50-year age group. Among men, 75% were employed, while for women the share was 45.8%; 26.7% of females were housewives. For men, 52.2% of the total trips were undertaken for work; for women, most trips were in the category of shopping (39.3%). Male and female pedes- trian characteristics are similar for the frequency of trips made. It was observed that women make smaller trips than men in terms of walking distance, as 76.44% of women walk less than 1 km. This distance includes the entire tour from origin to destination. The response to the reason for not using the available sidewalk facility also varied, with 46.04% of males not using it because of encroachment on sidewalks followed by 28.06% because of sidewalk surface. The major reasons cited by women were the walk environment (31.01%) and secu- rity (26.56%). encroachment is a common phenomenon Sa mp le (% ) Male Female 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Daily Weekly Monthly Occasionally Frequency 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 �500 500– 1,000 1,000– 1,500 1,500– 2,000 2,000– 2,500 �2,500 Walking Distance (m) Sa mp le (% ) Male Female Sa mp le (% ) Male Female 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Encroachment Surface Walking Environment Security Comfort Reason FIGURE 4 Distribution of male and female pedestrians, by frequency of trips. FIGURE 5 Distribution of male and female pedestrians, by walking distance. FIGURE 6 Response to reason for not using available sidewalk facility.

251DeveloPMeNT oF QuAlITATIve level oF SeRvICe FoR SIDeWAlKS on the sidewalks in Delhi. vending activities can be attri- butes of primary encroachment. The walk environment refers to factors such as shade of trees, absence of foul smell, and so forth. coMparison of Male and feMale pedesTrian response The responses of male and female pedestrians were ana- lyzed separately to study the difference in mean relative weights and satisfaction rating for different parameters of sidewalks. It is possible to estimate the frequency of male and female respondents with respect to the different weights assigned for the sidewalk parameters and then compare the values. Similarly, for the five identified cat- egories of satisfaction rating, the percentage responses of male and female respondents can be compared. Mean relative weight is a representation of aggregate value and it may undermine the effect of microscopic variation in responses of male and female pedestrians within subcat- egories. A detailed comparison of responses for relative weights and satisfaction rating is presented below. Response on Importance Levels by Male and Female Pedestrians Responses of male and female pedestrians were com- pared on a 5-point scale from immaterial to extremely important. Percentage responses for all 5 points were compared and differences were estimated. Mean weights were calculated for male and female pedestrians sepa- rately. The attribute-wise comparison of responses toward the importance level of parameters is presented in Table 2. The mean weights were almost similar for all attributes except security, to which females attach more importance than males. The mean weight for security for females is 3.5, while the corresponding figure for males is 2.9. As the sample size was small, no attempt was made to ensure that the difference is statistically significant. In India, women generally do not venture out alone at night or to places that are relatively unsafe; still, security plays a large role in their mind. Response to Satisfaction Rating by Male and Female Pedestrians The responses of men and women pertaining to satis- faction ratings of five parameters were compared on a 5-point scale ranging from poor to excellent and are pre- sented in Table 3. Women seemed to be more satisfied than men in terms of physical factors, but in terms of the user factor (security) they were more dissatisfied. It can be inferred from this response that women are ready to compromise with physical parameters but not with security and comfort. The mean weight for security by females is 2.4, as opposed to 2.9 by males. Gender Difference and Physical Design Female pedestrians assign more weight to security and comfort. A comparison of relative weights for all five parameters indicates that male and female responses are quite different for security. Women avoid using trans- port services after evening hours, indicating that security issues are associated with this service. The mean weight for the satisfaction rating for security is less for female TABLE 2 Relative Weights for Sidewalk Attributes Width Surface obstruction Security Comfort Attribute Score Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Immaterial 19.8 27.1 22.4 18.2 13.6 19.1 29.3 9.3 17.1 15.1 least important 25.1 19.1 26.4 34.2 23.3 22.2 17.1 16.9 20.9 16.4 Important 19.6 17.3 18.4 16.0 28.2 24.4 13.3 17.3 18.0 22.2 very important 16.2 15.6 15.8 18.2 21.8 17.3 19.1 23.6 22.9 18.7 extremely important 19.3 20.9 16.9 13.3 13.1 16.9 21.1 32.9 21.1 27.6 Mean weight 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.7 3.0 2.9 2.9 3.5 3.1 3.3 TABLE 3 Satisfaction Rating for Sidewalk Attributes Width Surface obstruction Security Comfort Attribute Score Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Poor 10.7 8.0 17.6 10.7 30.4 22.7 28.7 36.9 26.4 30.2 Satisfactory 29.8 22.7 29.3 28.9 21.8 20.9 14.9 20.9 23.6 26.7 Good 25.6 23.1 16.2 24.0 17.8 16.0 21.3 18.7 28.0 16.0 very good 16.9 20.9 18.4 20.4 13.6 16.0 11.1 15.1 13.8 16.0 excellent 17.1 25.3 18.4 16.0 16.4 24.4 24.0 8.4 8.2 11.1 Mean weight 3.0 3.3 2.9 3.0 2.6 3.0 2.9 2.4 2.5 2.5

252 WoMeN’S ISSueS IN TRANSPoRTATIoN, voluMe 2 than for male pedestrians. even if the different response for male and female pedestrians is not significant for width, surface, obstruction, and comfort, the difference is pronounced for security as a design element of side- walks. efforts need to be undertaken to further enhance the security of female users within the pedestrian infra- structure in addition to other qualitative parameters. level of service of sideWalks These loS definitions describe the adequacy of pedes- trian facilities and have evolved utilizing the five factors that affect pedestrian loS. loS A provides the best walking conditions for pedestrians in terms of a wide sidewalk, good surface quality, and separation from fast-moving vehicles. loS e, on the opposite end of the scale, may depict narrow sidewalks, encroachment, an unpleasant walking environment, and potential conflict with motorized vehicles. With this understanding, five loSs were worked out for this study. Normally, plan- ners in Delhi do not use this loS concept for designing sidewalks. 1. loS A is a pedestrian environment where ideal pedestrian conditions exist and the factors that nega- tively affect pedestrian loS are minimal. 2. loS B indicates that reasonable pedestrian condi- tions exist, but a small number of factors affect pedes- trian safety and comfort. loS A is the ideal, and loS B is an acceptable standard. 3. loS C indicates that basic pedestrian conditions exist, but a significant number of factors affect pedes- trian safety and comfort. 4. loS D indicates that poor pedestrian conditions exist and the factors that negatively affect pedestrian loS are wide-ranging or individually severe. Pedestrian comfort is minimal and safety concerns within the pedes- trian environmental are evident. 5. loS e indicates that the pedestrian environment is unsuitable. This situation occurs when all or almost all the factors affecting pedestrian loS are below accept- able standards. The satisfaction rating for all five attributes was mul- tiplied by the relative weight assigned to each attribute. The total weighted scores were calculated for all 30 loca- tions. The mean score was 48 with a standard deviation of 10. The total weighted score grading of sidewalks was calculated to define five ranges representing five loSs. Initially, grading was worked out taking the mean and standard deviation as reference figures. Mean plus one standard deviation (i.e., 58) has been defined as the upper limit and any score above it qualifies for loS A. The lower limit is the mean minus twice the standard deviation (i.e., 28). Any score less than 28 is designated as loS e. For loS B to loS D, an interval with a range equal to one standard deviation was used. With this scheme, more than 50% of locations qualified for loS A and loS B for the 30 sidewalks selected for onsite assessment. It is desirable that locations in loS A, loS B, and 50% of loS C lie within 50% to 60%. Thus, the intervals for cumulative scores were marginally modi- fied. These grading schemes are indicated in Table 4. The cumulative weights were calculated for males, females, and combined data sets. As the mean weights for male and female pedestrians were not distinctly dif- ferent, a frequency distribution curve for cumulative weighs (combined data set) was used. The distribution of 30 sidewalks on the basis of cumulative weights cal- culated using mean relative weights of male and female pedestrians did not exhibit dissimilarity. This similarity can be attributed to the fact that the physical design of sidewalks using an aggregate score is not very sensitive to the gender difference. conclusions The design of pedestrian facilities requires a different approach in view of the human factor. Different high- way capacity manuals have resorted to an approach that is similar to vehicle-oriented design. In these approaches, the performance of sidewalk is not related to qualitative dimensions of walking such as footpath width, footpath surface, walking environment, comfort, and security. Qualitative approaches developed for sidewalk design do not implicitly take gender differences into account. The perception response of female pedestrians is often neglected during the process of physically designing side- walks. efforts were made in this study to incorporate the attributes that affect the walking experience in a holistic manner to evolve loS indicators for sidewalks. loSs of sidewalks have been worked out taking into account TABLE 4 Allocation of LOS for Sidewalks Modified Cumulative Cumulative Distribution of Sidewalks loS Score Score Model 1a Model 2b Model 3c A >58 > 60 3 3 3 B 48–58 50–60 7 6 7 C 38–48 40–50 15 16 15 D 28–38 30–40 3 3 3 e <28 <30 2 2 2 a Model 1: Calculation of cumulative scores using mean relative weights of male pedestrians. b Model 2: Calculation of cumulative scores using mean relative weights of female pedestrians. c Model 3: Calculation of cumulative scores using combined mean relative weights.

253DeveloPMeNT oF QuAlITATIve level oF SeRvICe FoR SIDeWAlKS both relative weight and satisfaction rating in terms of composite score. This method of evaluating and design- ing sidewalks provides a simplified approach to incorpo- rate different qualitative elements into physical design. However, it is essential that both male and female pedes- trians are adequately satisfied with all sidewalk param- eters. There is a need for further study to define loS in terms of satisfaction toward certain important individual parameters of sidewalks. In this study, female pedestrians did not rate the security element of sidewalks as satisfac- tory. Improvement of physical features alone may not be useful to enhance the patronage of sidewalks. Address- ing genuine concerns of women in sidewalk design can contribute immensely to promote walk trip patronage within the urban transport system. references 1. Highway Capacity Manual. TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000. 2. Indian Roads Congress. Guidelines for Pedestrian Facili- ties. IRC, New Delhi, 1988. 3. Khisty, C. J. evaluation of Pedestrian Facilities: Beyond the level of Service Concept. In Transportation Research Record 1438, TRB, National Research Council, Washing- ton, D.C., 1994, pp. 45–50. 4. Sarkar, S. Determination of Service levels for Pedestrians with european examples. In Transportation Research Record 1405, TRB, National Research Council, Washing- ton, D.C., 1993, pp. 35–42. 5. Gallin, N. Quantifying Pedestrian Friendliness-Guidelines for Assessing Pedestrian level of Service. Road and Trans- port Research, vol. 10, No. 1, 2001, pp. 47–55. 6. Rosenbloom, S. understanding Women’s and Men’s Travel Patterns: The Research Challenges. In Conference Proceedings 35: Research on Women’s Issues in Trans- portation: Report of a Conference; Volume 1: Conference Overview and Plenary Papers, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2006, pp. 7–28. 7. Rosenbloom, S., and C. Winsten-Bartlett. Asking the Right Question: understanding the Travel Needs of older Women Who Do Not Drive. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 1818, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2002, pp. 78–82. 8. Handy, S. Community Design and Travel Behavior: exploring the Implications for Women. In Conference Proceedings 35: Research on Women’s Issues in Trans- portation: Report of a Conference; Volume 1: Conference Overview and Plenary Papers, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2006, pp. 29–38. 9. Schulz, D., and S. Gilbert. Women and Transit Security: A New look at an old Issue. In Women’s Travel Issues: Proceedings from the Second National Conference, octo- ber 1996, FHWA, u.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2000, pp. 550–562. http://www.fhwa. dot.gov/ohim/womens/chap30.pdf. 10. Astrop, A. The urban Travel Behavior and Constraints of low Income Households and Females in Pune, India. In Women’s Travel Issues: Proceedings from the Sec- ond National Conference, october 1996, FHWA, u.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 2000, pp. 215–246. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/womens/ chap12.pdf. resources Guilford, J. P. Psychometric Methods. McGraw Hill, New York, 1954. Parida, P. Planning, Design and Operation of Pedestrian Facili- ties in Delhi. Ph.D. thesis. Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 2006.