Women’s Issues in Transportation: Summary of the 4th International Conference, Volume 2: Technical Papers (2011)

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44 Older Women’s Travel Patterns and Road Accident Involvement in britain Christopher G. B. Mitchell, retired, former cochair of the Transportation Research Board Accessible Transportation and Mobility Committee This paper uses British data as its primary source, supplemented with data from Sweden and the United States, to analyze the mobility and safety of female and male car drivers and pedestrians. In European coun- tries and in North America, fewer women than men are killed or injured in traffic accidents as pedestrians or car drivers. In terms of casualty rates per popula- tion, where appropriate per driving license, per dis- tance driven, and per journey, women younger than 60 have a lower risk than men of both injuring themselves and of injuring other road users. At all adult ages, women travel more than men as car passengers, less as car drivers, and make more journeys by local public transport. women make more journeys as pedestrians than men below the age of 65, but men make more journeys than women in older age. Younger women are significantly safer drivers than men, but women cease to be safer drivers over the age of 60 or 70. The same applies to the risk they pose to other road users, as measured by their risk of killing a pedestrian. There is some evidence that older women voluntarily restrict the amount of driving they do at younger ages than men, but there is no evidence that in Britain they sur- render driving licenses at a younger age than male drivers. The fatality rate per journey as a pedestrian is higher than that as a car driver. Any policy that caused trips by those age 70 and over to transfer from being made by car to being made on foot would increase the total fatalities and serious injuries in traffic accidents. In European countries and in North America, fewer women than men are killed or injured in traffic acci-dents as pedestrians, cyclists, or car drivers. In terms of casualty rates per population, and where appropri- ate per driving license and per distance driven, women younger than 60 have a lower risk rate than men. Older female drivers reduce the number of car driver journeys they make at younger ages than male drivers, and there is some evidence that before they stop driving, aging women restrict their driving more severely than do men. There have been suggestions that men should do more to encourage women to drive more, particularly when men and women are traveling together, both to maintain their driving competence and because they are safer drivers. This paper analyzes the mobility and safety of male and female road users in Britain, with particular empha- sis on older car drivers. The patterns that are found are similar in general terms to those found in other European countries and the United States, although the precise val- ues of trips per year, driving license holding, and so on, do vary in detail between countries. Mobility Number of Journeys and Distance Traveled Younger women make more journeys per day or per year than men, but older men make more journeys than women (Figure 1a). At all ages, men travel further than women (Figure 1b). For Britain, these data come from

45OLDER wOMEN’S TRAVEL PATTERNS AND ROAD ACCIDENT INVOLVEMENT the National Travel Survey (1); for the United States, from the National Household Travel Survey (2); and for Sweden, from RES, The National Travel Survey (3). Purposes of Travel The purposes for which people travel vary between men and women, as well as with age (Figure 2). For both women and men, journeys to work and education decrease with increasing age—for women particularly after age 60 and for men particularly after age 65 (the qualifying ages for state pensions in Britain). women make more journeys than men to escort others. Some of these escort journeys are for school journeys, but the majority are not; only women ages 30 to 39 make more escort journeys for education than for other purposes. Visiting friends is a significant purpose for both gen- ders, and the number of journeys remains fairly constant to age 75 or above. For men, shopping and personal business journeys (health care, visiting the bank, and other similar activities) increase after age 60 and remain high to age 80. For women, the increase after age 60 is smaller and only lasts to age 70. For both women and men, there is an increase in the number of journeys for nonwork activities after retire- ment that lasts into the 70s for women and the 80s for men. Although there are undoubtedly some older indi- viduals whose activities are limited by transport prob- lems, the increase in nonwork journeys between the ages of 60 and 75 suggests that for many people, transport difficulties are not reducing activities. Reports on the transport needs of older people (4) and on social exclu- sion in Britain (5) do identify transport as a significant problem. Mode of Travel Men make more of their journeys as car drivers, while women are more likely to travel as car passengers (Figure 3). Almost all the reduction in the number of journeys peo- ple make over the age of 70 (for men) or 50 (for women) is a result of making fewer journeys as car driver. Men ages 65 to 69 increase the number of jour- neys they make as pedestrians, and those ages 70 to 85 increase the number of journeys by bus. women ages 65 to 85 increase their journeys by bus. FIGURe 1 Graphs showing (a) journeys and (b) distance per person per year by age and gender: britain, 2005 (National Travel Survey). 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 17 –2 0 21 –2 9 30 –3 9 40 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + 17 –2 0 21 –2 9 30 –3 9 40 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + Age Group (a) (b) Jo ur n ey s pe r Y e a r Males Females 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 Age Group D is ta nc e pe r Y e a r (m i) Males Females FIGURe 2 Journeys per year by age and purpose for (a) women and (b) men: britain, 2005. Age Group (a) (b) Age Group 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 21 –2 9 30 –3 9 40 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + 21 –2 9 30 –3 9 40 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + . Work and education Escort Visiting friends 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 Jo ur n ey s pe r Y e a r Jo ur n ey s pe r Y e a r . Shopping and personal business Other leisure

46 wOMEN’S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 The tendency at all ages for men to drive cars and women to travel as car passengers appears in every coun- try for which data are available (6). The United States is more car dependent than European countries, with about 90% of all journeys by car, 8% as pedestrians and 2% by transit. Also, in the United States, the percentage of journeys by noncar modes does not increase with age above 60 years, as it does in Britain and other European countries. Travel by Holders of Car Driver’s Licenses The reduction in journeys as car drivers with increas- ing age is partly because of the decreasing percentage of the older population holding driver’s licenses and partly because those with driver’s licenses drive less. To sepa- rate these effects, Figure 4 shows the number of car driver journeys per year by people with car driver’s licenses and the average length of those journeys. women with driver’s licenses reduce the number of jour- neys they make as car drivers from age 50, with the number of journeys falling steadily from 800 per year at ages 50 to 54, to 200 a year for ages 85 and over. Men maintain a rate of 800 to 900 journeys a year to age 75, then reduce their rate to 400 a year at ages 85 and over. The average length of women’s car driver journeys varies little with age, ranging between 5 and 7 miles over the entire age range. Younger men make longer journeys—typically 10 or 11 miles—up to age 65, and then reduce their average journey length to about 5 miles for ages 80 and over. There is no research to establish whether the reduc- tion in the number of car driver trips by older women is a result of having fewer activities to which to travel, of making more journeys as a car passenger after the hus- band’s retirement, or of self-regulation that leads women to stop driving under more stressful conditions, such as at night. Anecdotal evidence suggests that women do avoid driving at night, on motorways (interstates), and for long distances at younger ages than men. Driver’s Licenses In Britain, car driver’s license holding by men increased rapidly from the 1970s to the 1990s but is now saturated for men up to the age of 75. It is still increasing for older men. About 90% of men ages 40 to 70 hold a driver’s license, and about 80% of those in their early 70s hold a driver’s license (Figure 5). License holding by women FIGURe 3 Journeys per person per year by mode for (a) women and (b) men: britain, 2005. Age Group (a) (b) Age Group Jo ur n ey s pe r Y e a r Jo ur n ey s pe r Y e a r 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 17 –2 0 21 –2 9 30 –3 9 40 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + 17 –2 0 21 –2 9 30 –3 9 40 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + . Car driver Car passenger Other 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 Bus Walk FIGURe 4 Car driver journeys per (a) licensed driver and (b) average journey length: britain, 2005. Age Group (a) (b) Age Group 0 200 400 600 800 1000 16 –2 4 25 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + 16 –2 4 25 –4 9 50 –5 4 55 –5 9 60 –6 4 65 –6 9 70 –7 4 75 –7 9 80 –8 4 85 + Ca r D riv e r Jo ur n ey s pe r D riv e r pe r Y e a r 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Av e ra ge C ar D riv e r Jo ur n ey L en gt h (m i) Men Women Men Women

47OLDER wOMEN’S TRAVEL PATTERNS AND ROAD ACCIDENT INVOLVEMENT was much lower than that of men. For women in their 40s, license holding appears to have just reached satura- tion at around 80% of the population, but for all older age groups it is still increasing. The increase in license holding in older age groups occurs because most drivers obtain their license when young or in early middle age and then retain it into older age. The 37% of women ages 40 to 49 who held a driv- er’s license in 1975 are now only in their 70s; of women in their 70s, around 32% held a driver’s license in 2005. Men ages 70 and over have had a slightly lower percent- age of license holding than women ages 40 to 49 since 1975. Between 1975 and 2007, license holding by both groups increased from about 35% to about 77%. By following the license holding of cohorts through National Travel Surveys, it is possible to estimate the per- centage of drivers who surrender licenses at various ages (Figure 6). For men, there is clear evidence of some sur- rendering of licenses from age 70 onwards. License holding for the cohort of men in their late 70s drops about 5%. By ages 85 and over, it drops between 10% and 15%. For women, license holding is always lower, and there is little evidence of licenses being surrendered earlier than by men. For women in their mid-80s in 2005, license holding was about 15%, compared with about 22% a decade earlier for the same cohort. For those in their mid-70s, the reduc- tion was to around 40% in 2005, from about 48% 8 years earlier. For those in their 60s in 2005, of whom about 64% held licenses, there is no systematic evidence of a reduction in license holding over the previous decade. For the cohort of men in their 60s in 2005, license holding was about 88% and had been steady for the previous 20 years. The interpretation of these figures as showing no difference in license surrender rates between men and women assumes that the mortality rates of license holders and nonholders are the same. Because these are survey results, the effect of death removing people from the population but not from the count of licenses does not apply. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Pe rc e n t H ol di ng F ul l C ar D riv e r’s L ic en se s Men ages 40–49 Men ages 60–69 Men ages 70+ Women ages 40–49 Women ages 60–69 Women ages 70+ 0 20 40 60 80 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Pe rc e n t Pe rc e n t United States Britain 2005 Sweden 0 20 40 60 80 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 United States Britain 2005 Sweden Age (a) (b) Age FIGURe 5 Percentage of men and women holding full car driver’s licenses: britain. FIGURe 6 Percentage of (a) men and (b) women holding car driver’s licenses in the United States, Sweden, and britain: 2005–2006.

48 wOMEN’S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 Higher percentages of people in the United States and Sweden hold car driver’s licenses than in Britain, and in Britain, the reduction in the percentage holding licenses decreases more with age. For women, this reflects lower license holding in the past by middle-aged women. For men ages 70 and over, and for women ages 50 and over, license holding is increasing. License holding in Sweden and the United States is similar, though a little lower for women in Sweden. sAfety For Great Britain (that is, England, wales, and Scotland), detailed road safety statistics are available since 1971, published annually by the Department for Transport and its predecessors in Road Casualties Great Britain (7). For all age groups, fewer females than males are injured in road accidents. In Britain since 1990, male road acci- dent deaths have outnumbered female deaths by two to one, and for casualties of all severities, males outnumber females by about 40%. In the United States, the ratio of male to female deaths is rather more than two to one, but slightly more females than males are injured in traffic acci- dents (8). In Sweden three times as many men as women were killed in traffic accidents in 2006 (9). Casualty Rates for Car Drivers It is well known that for car drivers, the fatality rate per driver’s license increases with age after an age of about 50 or 60. Much of this increase is caused by the greater fragility of people as they age, as reported by Evans (10). Of car occupants injured in traffic accidents in Britain, 0.6% of those ages 30 to 49 die of their injuries, com- pared with 2.0% of those ages 70 to 79 and 4.5% of those ages 80 and over. Figure 7 shows how the car driver casualty rates per license varied with age and severity of injury in Britain in 2006. The rates are given on different scales (fatalities per 10 million drivers, killed and seriously injured (KSI) per million drivers, and all severities (including fatal) per 100,000 drivers) because there are approximately a hun- dred casualties of all severities and 10 KSI casualties for each fatality. The fatality rate is lowest for drivers ages 50 to 59 and increases by more than a factor of almost four for drivers ages 80 and over. The rate for KSI casualties is lowest for drivers ages 60 to 69 and doubles for those ages 80 and over. The rate for casualties of all severities is lowest for drivers ages 70 to 79 and increases by 22% for those ages 80 and over. This shows that the increase in accident involvement per year is small for even the oldest drivers, and that the increase in fatalities is largely a result of fragility. (Because older drivers drive fewer miles, the casualty rate per mile driven does increase for older drivers.) Published road safety information for Britain only gives data covering road user type, gender, and age for KSI casualties, not for fatalities or for casualties of all severities. The remainder of this section analyzes KSI casualty rates for car drivers by age and gender. Figure 8 shows car driver casualty rates per license for male and female KSI casualties in 2006. For all driver ages, the casualty rate for male drivers is higher than for female drivers; however, the difference is much greater for younger drivers. By the age of 60, the rates for men and women are similar, and in some previous years, the rate for older women has been higher than for older men. 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 16–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70–79 80+ Driver Age Group Ca su al ty R at e pe r D riv e r Fatal per 10 million drivers KSI per million drivers All per 100,000 drivers FIGURe 7 Car driver casualty rates per driver’s license: britain, 2006.

49OLDER wOMEN’S TRAVEL PATTERNS AND ROAD ACCIDENT INVOLVEMENT Female car drivers drive fewer miles per year than male drivers. when the casualty rate per mile driven is calculated, women have a higher rate than men for ages over 40, although the difference does not become substantial until the age of 60 (Figure 9). For women, the casualty rate is lowest for the age group 40 to 49, while for men it is lowest for the age group 60 to 69. The casualty rate per mile is calculated for 2004, the latest year for which information is available on miles driven by men and women of various ages, including 80 and over. Trends in Car Driver Casualty Rates Casualty rates per driver license have been decreasing for both male and female car drivers and for all age groups. Figure 10 shows the rates for male and female drivers for a number of age groups. As would be expected from the previous section, the difference in rates between male and female drivers is greatest for the youngest drivers. The casualty rate is lowest for the age group 60 to 69. In general, the rates for female drivers are lower than those for male drivers. Exceptions are 2003, when female 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age Ca r D riv e r KS I R at e pe r 1 00 ,0 00 L ice ns es Male drivers Female drivers FIGURe 8 Car driver KSI casualty rates per license for male and female drivers: britain, 2006. 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 16–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70–79 80+ Age Group Ca r D riv e r KS I p er M illi on M ile s Dr ive n Male drivers Female drivers FIGURe 9 Car driver KSI casualty rates per mile driven for male and female drivers: britain, 2004.

50 wOMEN’S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 drivers ages 70 to 79 had a higher rate than male drivers, and 1998 and 1999, when female drivers ages 80 and over had a higher rate than male drivers. For drivers ages 80 and over, the casualty rate decreased by 60% between 1997 and 2007, while for the younger age groups, the decrease was about 50%. The casualty rates per mile driven decreased more for women than men, and more for older drivers than for middle-aged drivers. Risks to Other Road Users A measure of the risk that different groups of drivers pose to other road users is the number of pedestrians killed by each group of drivers. The number of pedestrians killed by male and female car drivers of different ages has been tabu- lated for the year 2005 by the Department for Transport. Figure 11 shows the number of pedestrians killed by drivers in 5-year age groups. At all ages, male drivers killed more pedestrians than female drivers. Below a driver age of 60, the difference is large, a factor of at least three to one. This measure can be converted into the risk per driver of killing a pedestrian and the risk per mile driven. Figure 12 shows these two risk measures. The risk per driver is greater for male than female drivers up to age 70 but approximately equal for older drivers. The risk per mile driven is greater for male drivers up to age 60 but greater for female drivers above age 60. (a) (b) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1980 1990 2000 2010 KS I C as ua ltie s pe r 10 0, 00 0 Li ce ns es KS I C as ua ltie s pe r 10 0, 00 0 Li ce ns es Female ages 20–29 Male ages 20–29 Female ages 40–59 Male ages 40–59 Female ages 60–69 Male ages 60–69 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1995 2000 2005 . Female ages 60–69 Male ages 60–69 Female ages 70–79 Male ages 70–79 Female ages 80+ Male ages 80+ FIGURe 10 Trends in car driver KSI casualty rates per license for male and female car drivers in britain: (a) 1980–2010, and (b) 1995–2005. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age of Car Driver Pe de st ria ns K ille d Total Male drivers Female drivers FIGURe 11 Number of pedestrians killed by car drivers of different ages: britain, 2005 (special tabulation by Department for Transport).

51OLDER wOMEN’S TRAVEL PATTERNS AND ROAD ACCIDENT INVOLVEMENT Pedestrian Casualties The fatality rate per population for pedestrians increases greatly at age 70 and above (Figure 13), again reflect- ing the greater fragility of older people. This statistic has been used to argue that older people are at greater risk of death as pedestrians than as car drivers, because for older people, the fatality rate per population for pedes- trians is higher than for car drivers. For people ages 70 and over, the pedestrian rate is marginally lower than the rate for car drivers per license. Although fatality rates per person and per driver are similar for pedestrians and car drivers, because more journeys are made as car drivers than as pedestrians, the risk per journey is greater for pedestrians than for car drivers. The fatality rates per journey can be estimated, and these are shown in Figure 14 for the years 2005 and 2006. Both years are given to indicate the variation in the estimates from year to year. The fatality rate per journey is lower for car drivers than for pedestrians for all ages over 30. The year-to- year variation in the estimates, while significant, is not large enough to cast doubt on this result. Therefore, any policy that causes people to replace car driver journeys with pedestrian journeys will increase the road accident fatalities overall. KSI casualty rates per journey for female and male pedestrians and car drivers are shown in Figure 15. For both men and women, the rates for pedestrian casualties are higher than for car driver casualties for all ages over 0 20 40 60 80 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age of Car DriverP e de st ria ns K ille d pe r M illi on D riv e rs Male drivers Female drivers 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age of Car Driver Pe de st ria ns K ille d pe r B illi on M ile s Male drivers Female drivers (a) (b) FIGURe 12 Risk of killing a pedestrian (a) per driver and (b) per miles driven: britain, 2005. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age D ea th s pe r 1 00 ,0 00 Pedestrian rate per 100,000 population Car driver rate per 100,000 licenses FIGURe 13 Fatality rates for pedestrians per population and car drivers per license: britain, 2006.

52 wOMEN’S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 30. In more detail, male and female pedestrians have similar casualty rates per journey for ages over 60, and the increase in casualties per journey with increasing age is clear. Female car drivers have a lower casualty rate per journey than males for ages up to 60, but for ages over 60 have a higher casualty rate with increasing age, with the gap increasing with age. The smaller increase with age in casualty rates for car drivers as opposed to pedes- trians may reflect the greater protection in accidents that car drivers experience. Any policies that encourage people over the age of about 70 to switch car driver journeys to pedestrian jour- neys would increase the overall number of KSI casualties. The difference in casualty rates between car drivers and pedestrians is greater for men than women, so the ten- dency of older male drivers to continue driving may well be contributing to a safer road system. discussion And conclusions There certainly are some older people who experience social exclusion as a result of transport difficulties (4, 5); however, the increase after retirement in nonwork 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age D ea th s pe r B illi on (1 09 ) J ou rne ys Pedestrians, 2005 Pedestrians, 2006 Car drivers, 2005 Car drivers, 2006 FIGURe 14 Fatality rates for car drivers and pedestrians per journey: britain, 2005 and 2006. FIGURe 15 Car driver and pedestrian rates per journey for KSI casualties: britain, 2006. 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age Male car drivers Female car drivers Male pedestrians Female pedestrians KS I C as ua ltie s pe r B illi on (1 09 ) J ou rne ys

53OLDER wOMEN’S TRAVEL PATTERNS AND ROAD ACCIDENT INVOLVEMENT journeys by both men and women suggests that for many people, transport does not limit the activities in which people participate, at least in their 60s and early 70s. The pattern of women traveling as car passengers and men as car drivers is found in any country for which data are available. Partly for this reason, women drive fewer miles per year than men. A recent study by Langford et al. shows that in the Netherlands, it is only people who drive less than 3,000 km (approximately 2,000 miles) per year whose accident involvement rate increases for the ages of 75 and over (11). This does suggest that there are safety benefits in encouraging older female drivers to share driving more with male partners, to maintain their practice as drivers under conditions with which they feel comfortable. Older female drivers reduce the number of car driver journeys they make at about 20 years younger than older male drivers, from age 50 for women and age 75 for men. This reduction may indicate that women self-regulate their driving to avoid stressful condi- tions at younger ages than male drivers, but there is no research evidence to confirm that this is occurring. Also, following cohorts of drivers provides no evidence that women surrender driver’s licenses at younger ages than male drivers. The rates per license for car driver KSI casualties are higher for male drivers than female drivers at all ages, but the difference is much greater for young drivers than for drivers age 60 and over. The casualty rate per mile driven is high for male drivers up to age 40, but higher for female drivers over age 40. There is research evidence from Britain that Males at fault were much more likely to commit deliberate risk-taking types of accident than females. . . . For female drivers, a far greater proportion of their speed-related collisions involved ignorance of the correct speed than for males. where females were involved in deliberate risk-taking, they were more likely to be travelling too fast for the condi- tions rather than above the speed limit. (12) The changes in casualty rates with age are consistent with both male and female drivers becoming safer as they become more experienced, with the difference in rates decreasing for older drivers because male drivers become less reckless as they age. If this is what is happen- ing, there could be benefit in providing refresher training for older drivers to address problems of poor judgment of driving conditions. On the results presented for Britain, older female drivers are no safer than older male drivers. Thus there would be no direct safety benefit in transferring some car mileage from older male drivers to older female driv- ers. Because older female drivers drive fewer miles than older male drivers, however, they could well benefit from more driving experience, which could well have an indi- rect safety effect. It must be emphasized that nothing should be done to encourage older female drivers to drive more in condi- tions in which they do not feel comfortable. Their appar- ent willingness to self-regulate probably provides safety benefits by enabling female drivers to avoid stressful and dangerous driving conditions. For both men and women, casualty rates per journey are higher for pedestrians than car drivers for ages over 30. Any policies that encourage people over the age of about 70 to switch car driver journeys to pedestrian journeys would increase the overall number of KSI casualties. RefeRences 1. Department for Transport. National Travel Survey. Lon- don. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespubli cations/personal/mainresults. 2. Bureau for Transportation Statistics. National Household Travel Survey. U.S. Department of Transportation, wash- ington, D.C. http://www.bts.gov/programs/national_ household_travel_survey. 3. SIKA Statistics. The National Travel Survey. RES 2005– 06. Swedish Institute for Transport and Communications Analysis, Östersund, 2007. http://www.sika-institute. se/Templates/FileInfo.aspx?filepath=/Doclib/2007/Sika Statistik/ss_2007_19_eng.pdf. 4. Atkins, w. S. Older People: Their Transport Needs and Requirements. Department of the Environment, Trans- port and the Regions, London, 2001. http://webarchive. nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/ inclusion/older/olderpeopletheirtransportnee3261. 5. Social Exclusion Unit. Making the Connections: Final Report on Transport and Social Exclusion. Report by the Social Exclusion Unit, Office of the Deputy Prime Minis- ter, London, 2003. http://www.carplus.org.uk/Resources/ pdf/Making_the_Connections_Final_Report_on_Trans port_and_Social_Exclusion.pdf. 6. Mitchell, C. G. B. Independent Mobility for Older People. Proceedings of TRANSED2004: The 10th International Conference on Mobility and Transport for Elderly and Disabled People. Hamamatsu, Japan, May 23–26, 2004. http://www.sortclearinghouse.info/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?ar ticle=1138&context=research. 7. Department for Transport. Road Casualties in Great Brit- ain: Annual Reports (up to 2001, Road Accidents Great Britain: The Casualty Report). London. http://www.dft. gov.uk/pgr/statistics/datatablespublications/accidents/ casualtiesgbar/. 8. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Traffic Safety Facts 2007: A Compilation of Motor Vehicle Crash

54 wOMEN’S ISSUES IN TRANSPORTATION, VOLUME 2 Data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System and the General Estimates System. DOT HS 811 002. National Center for Statistics and Analysis, U.S. Department of Transportation, washington D.C., 2009. http://www-nrd .nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811002.PDF. 9. SIKA Statistics. Vägtrafikskador 2006 (Road Traffic Injuries 2006) (in Swedish). Swedish Institute for Trans- port and Communications Analysis, Östersund, 2007. http://www.sika-institute.se/Doclib/2007/SikaStatistik/ ss_2007_30.pdf. 10. Evans, L. Risks Older Drivers Face Themselves and Threats They Pose to Other Road Users. International Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 29, 2000, pp. 315–322. 11. Langford, J., R. Methorst, and L. Hakamies-Blomqvist. Older Drivers Do Not Have a High Crash Risk: A Repli- cation of Low Mileage Bias. Accident Analysis & Preven- tion, Vol. 38, No. 3 , 2006, pp. 574–578. 12. Clarke, D. D., P. ward, w. Truman, and C. Bartle. Fatal Vehicle-Occupant Collisions: An In-depth Study. Road Safety Research Report No. 75. Department for Trans- port, London, 2007.