Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings (2023)

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9   Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings While no comprehensive industry guidelines related to airfield apron/ramp markings are available, a multitude of industry publications provide guidelines, recommendations, or both related to different uses of airport aprons and the markings associated with those uses. This chapter discusses the literary sources that were reviewed, including their content and application to the synthesis topic. This effort included a review of both domestic and international/non-U.S. publications. As part of other aspects of the study process (e.g., case examples/interviews), some local literary resources were reviewed and analyzed (e.g., the markings standards publication of the Seattle-Tacoma International Airport). 2.1 Literary Sources Reviewed and Literature Review Approach The following publications were reviewed as part of the literature review effort: • Domestic Publications – A4A Safety Guidelines (SG) 908: Recommended Apron Markings and Identification. 2017. – ACRP Report 96: Airport Planning and Design Guidebook. 2013. – ACRP Report 113: Guidebook on General Aviation Facility Planning. 2014. – FAA AC 150/5300-13B – Airport Design. 2022. – FAA AC 150/5300-14D – Design of Aircraft Deicing Facilities. 2020. – FAA AC 150/5340-1M – Standards for Airport Markings. 2019. – FAA AC 150/5390-2C – Heliport Design. 2012. – FAA Draft Engineering Brief No. 105, Vertiport Design. 2022. – FAA Aeronautical Information Manual, current edition. 2022. • International and Non-U.S. Publications – ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition). 2017. – ACI World—Apron Safety Handbook (1st Edition). 2015. – Civil Aviation Authority, CAP 637: Visual Aids Handbook. 2007. – ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1 and 2—Aerodrome Design and Operations (8th Edition). 2018. – ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2—Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays (5th Edition). 2020. – ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4—Visual Aids (5th Edition). 2021. – UAF&FA (Infrastructure Workgroup)—Apron Markings and Signage. 2018. A spreadsheet was compiled to document the apron markings discussed in each of these publications. This spreadsheet was used to compare the guidelines provided in each publication. C H A P T E R 2

10 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings 2.2 Domestic Publications Analysis/Review The domestic publications that were reviewed provided some similar and different guidelines related to airfield apron markings at airports. This section presents an overview of these publica- tions and discusses the similarities and differences that were identified. 2.2.1 A4A SG 908: Recommended Apron Markings and Identification A4A SG 908 (A4A 2017) is primarily focused on the following airfield apron markings that are located in commercial terminal gate areas: • Vehicle service roads • Pedestrian pathways • No parking areas • Equipment parking areas • Passenger boarding bridge parking areas • Gate number identification and aircraft parking markings The publication provides general information regarding the purpose of each of these markings as well as the proposed coloration and dimensions of the marking. Additionally, the publication covers general guidelines related to the meaning of various marking patterns. For example: • Double Solid Lines. In general, these lines indicate that a marking should not be crossed. • Single Solid Line. A single solid line or a zipper line indicates that the marking may be crossed with caution. • Dotted Line. A dotted line indicates that the person or vehicle approaching the marking should be prepared to yield or give way. A4A SG 908 is the only domestic publication in the review that provided this type of broad guidelines regarding the general meaning of marking patterns. It includes detailed information related to aircraft gate markings, including all the markings shown in Exhibit 4. Additionally, A4A SG 908 provides guidelines and recommendations related to surface- painted directional signage and speed limit signage for vehicles that use painted roadways. It also recommends painting the word “STOP” at locations along surface-painted roadways where vehicles will be expected to STOP for crossing traffic or aircraft. 2.2.2 ACRP Report 96: Apron Planning and Design Guidebook ACRP Report 96: Apron Planning and Design Guidebook (Ricondo & Associates, Inc., et al. 2013) provides guidelines related to a variety of airfield apron markings in the terminal area, including: • Lead-in/lead-out lines, • Stop lines, • Aircraft safety envelopes, • Passenger walkways, • Equipment parking, • Fuel hydrants, • Engine inlet/propeller hazard zones, • No parking/no driving zones,

Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings 11 • Engine startup positions, and • Fueling restriction lines. Many of these guidelines focus on the general purpose of each marking and the typical mark- ing characteristics (e.g., color, size, and pattern). Detailed guidelines regarding specific marking widths and spacing are not generally provided. A few of the terminal gate area markings shown in the report have characteristics that differ from the markings depicted in A4A SG 908, as shown in Exhibit 5 from ACRP Report 96. Specifically, the marking layout for the engine intake clearance zone and the marking pattern that indicates where fueling hydrant carts should be parked are 2-7. Aircraft Standard Markings Note: Paint a white line outlining the outside of the Red line of the envelope WHITE OUTER SAFETY LINE Exhibit 4. Aircraft gate markings. Source: A4A SG 908. 2017. Copyrighted and used with permission.

12 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings different. However, the majority of the guidelines align closely with the guidelines in A4A SG 908. ACRP Report 96 also provides general guidelines related to marking fuel hydrant locations (red outline with red crosshatching) that are not discussed in A4A SG 908. 2.2.3 ACRP Report 113: Guidebook on General Aviation Facility Planning ACRP Report 113 (Sander et al. 2014) provides recommendations related to the development and layout of general aviation aircraft aprons. The report includes a discussion of the layout of taxilane centerline markings on aprons and on the configuration of aircraft tie-down spaces. Specific guidelines related to the sizing of these markings are not provided. 2.2.4 FAA AC 150/5300-13B—Airport Design FAA AC 150/5300-13B (FAA 2022a) provides guidelines related to the planning and develop- ment of an array of airport infrastructure, including runways, taxiways/taxilanes, and aprons. Spe- cific guidelines related to apron markings are provided in Section 5.12. In general, this AC states that readers should refer to FAA AC 150/5340-1M—Standards for Airport Markings (FAA 2019), as it contains guidelines on a variety of apron-related markings. The AC also directs readers to A4A SG 908 and to the ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition) (ACI World 2017). The facility design guidelines in this AC are relevant to siting the taxiway/ taxilane centerline markings along aprons related to the protected surfaces associated with aircraft of various sizes (safety areas, object-free areas, and so forth). FAA AC 150/5300-13B Exhibit 5. Aircraft gate markings. Source: ACRP Report 96: Apron Planning and Design Guidebook (Ricondo & Associates, Inc., et al. 2013).

Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings 13 was published on March 31, 2022. This version, compared with the previous version (FAA AC 150/5300-13A), includes numerous updates related to apron areas. 2.2.5 FAA AC 150/5300-14D—Design of Aircraft Deicing Facilities FAA AC 150/5300-14D (FAA 2020) provides guidelines related to the planning and develop- ment of deicing facilities at airports. The guidelines include a discussion of the purpose, color- ation, and layout of the following deicing apron markings: • Taxiway centerline markings • Facility boundary markings (commonly a taxiway/taxiway intermediate holding position marking or a non-movement boundary marking) • Vehicle safety zone (VSZ) surface markings • Deicing pad identification markings The guidelines in this AC defer to FAA AC 150/5340-1M—Standards for Airport Markings (FAA 2019) for the coloration and layout of the taxiway centerline, facility boundary, and deicing pad identification markings. However, specific guidelines are provided for the size, color, and layout of VSZ surface markings and for the layout of surface markings on composite deicing pads where aircraft of different sizes may need to be accommodated in the same area, as shown in Exhibit 6. 2.2.6 FAA Advisory Circular 150/5340-1M— Standards for Airport Markings FAA AC 150/5340-1M (FAA 2019) provides extensive guidelines related to airfield markings throughout the apron environment with the exception of aircraft parking positions (both in terminal gate areas and on hardstands). Some specific markings identified by airports for use on aprons: • Vehicle roadway markings • Apron control markings • Apron entrance point markings • Gate destination signs The primary purpose of apron control, apron entrance point, and gate destination markings is to facilitate the movement of aircraft along apron areas. Apron control markings are intended to simplify communication with air traffic control towers. The markings can be circular or trian- gular, as shown in Exhibit 7a and 7b. Apron entrance point markings are different from apron Exhibit 6. Composite deicing apron markings. Source: FAA AC 150/5300-14D. 2020.

14 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings control markings in that they are commonly located along large continuous aprons to aid pilots in identifying their position (Exhibit 8). This AC is the only publication in the literature review that provided guidelines related to apron control and apron entrance point markings. The AC does note the use of “non-standard colors” for denoting taxi routes in movement areas. The guidelines state that these types of surface markings within the movement area are considered non-standard and require specific approval by the FAA Director of Airport Safety and Standards. 2.2.7 FAA AC 150/5390-2C—Heliport Design FAA AC 150/5390-2C (FAA 2012) provides detailed guidelines related to heliports located both on and off airport property and on heliports specifically intended to serve hospitals. The specific markings discussed in the AC are: • Heliport identification markings, • Touchdown and lift off (TLOF) area markings, • Final approach and takeoff (FATO) area markings, • Touchdown/position circle (TDPC) markings, • Flight path alignment markings, • TLOF size and weight limitation markings, • Passenger walkway markings, • Taxi routes, and • Parking position markings. Detailed guidelines are provided on how to size, orient, and lay out these markings. Some common heliport markings are shown in Exhibit 9, which is from the AC. 2.2.8 FAA Draft Engineering Brief No. 105—Vertiport Design In February 2022, the FAA issued this draft Engineering Brief (EB) (FAA 2022c) related to the design of vertiports that includes guidelines related to vertiport markings. Vertiports are intended to (a) Circular Shaped Apron Control Marking Details (b) Triangular Shaped Apron Control Marking Details Exhibit 7a and 7b. Apron control markings. Source: FAA AC 150/5340-1M. 2019.

Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings 15 be used by aircraft other than helicopters with vertical takeoff and landing capabilities. In general, many of the proposed markings use terminology that is similar to the markings associated with heli- ports (FATO, TLOF, and so forth). However, the vertiport identification symbol is different. This draft EB does not include any standards or recommendations related to helicopter ramps/aprons. 2.2.9 FAA Aeronautical Information Manual Chapter 2, Section 3 of the FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) (FAA 2022b) provides guidelines related to the meaning of various airport markings. The primary audience for the AIM is pilots. Consequently, the guidelines primarily focus on communicating the intended purpose of common airport markings and how pilots should respond when they encounter them in the airfield environment. The guidelines closely align with the information communicated in more detail in FAA AC 150/5340-1M (FAA 2019). However, no specific guidelines are provided on apron control point or apron entrance point markings. With the exception of vehicle service road markings, there are no guidelines on markings associated with aircraft hardstand or commercial terminal parking areas. Exhibit 8. Apron entrance point markings. Source: FAA AC 150/5340-1M. 2019.

16 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings 2.3 International/Non-U.S. Publications Analysis/Review The international/non-U.S. publications in the literature review provide guidelines related to international airfield apron markings that are similar to and different from their domestic counterparts. This section provides an overview of the publications reviewed and discusses the similarities and differences that were identified. It should be noted that some international/non-U.S. publications use different terminology for various markings compared with the domestic publications that were reviewed. For example, the ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition) (FAA 2017) refers to “stand location” and “stand direction” markings, which have a function that is similar to the painted gate destination signs discussed in FAA AC 150/5340-1M (FAA 2019). 2.3.1 ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition) The ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition) was published in 2017. It provides an overview of an array of apron markings applicable to aircraft, vehicles, and pedes- trians operating in the apron environment. Much of the guidance is similar to that of domestic materials that have already been described. However, there are a number of differences, which are discussed in this section. The handbook provides guidance related to the general meaning of the markings’ various colors, as shown in Exhibit 10. In terms of proposed coloration, the handbook also recommends Exhibit 9. Heliport markings. Source: FAA AC 150/5390-2C. 2012.

Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings 17 using a black outline for yellow and white markings on light pavements. A white outline is recommended for red markings on dark pavements. The handbook also provides information related to the following apron markings primarily intended for use by aircraft: • Stand lead-in lines • Lead-in lines for multiple aircraft parking stands • Maximum wingspan marking • No entry marking • Alternative aircraft stand taxilane (e.g., multi-colored centerline markings for aircraft of various sizes) • Stand information markings (e.g., stand direction and stand location markings) • Direction to parking stand markings • Stop lines • Basic and multiple marshaller and towing stop line • Power out, turn bar, and alignment lines • One-way arrow A significant difference between the handbook and the domestic guidelines is that the hand- book discusses the application of multiple colors to taxilane centerlines to guide aircraft of dif- ferent sizes through a given area. One of the example diagrams in the handbook is depicted in Exhibit 11. This diverges from FAA AC 150/5340-1M (FAA 2019), which generally states that the use of “non-standard colors” for markings requires FAA approval. The handbook also discusses the establishment of a “boundary of responsibility line” to iden- tify the limits of the air traffic controllers’ authority for controlling the movement of aircraft and vehicles. This marking serves a function that is similar to the non-movement boundary marking discussed in AC 150/5340-1M but has a different layout and coloration. In addition, the handbook includes guidelines for the following multiple markings primarily related to vehicles and equipment: • Stand safety line • Stand-by areas restricted for aircraft maneuvers or height restricted • Stand dividing line Exhibit 10. Proposed color coding of apron markings. Source: ACI World. Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition). 2017. Copyrighted and used with permission.

18 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings • Tractor push-back line and push-back limit line • Equipment parking area • No parking area • Air bridge wheel position (e.g., passenger boarding bridge) • Underground services (including fuel hydrants) markings • Service road • Vehicle limit line • Stand identification on service road • Taxiway/taxilane crossing • Pedestrian crossing • Pedestrian guide line A number of unique apron area markings are discussed in connection with vehicle opera- tions that were not reviewed in the domestic materials. For example, tractor push-back lines and push-back limit lines (Exhibit 12) provide guidance to tug drivers related to the positioning of the aircraft on push-back. Additionally, the handbook includes a discussion on the use of a blue line that should be installed to guide pedestrians between buildings and aircraft parking positions. 2.3.2 ACI World—Apron Safety Handbook (1st Edition) The ACI World—Apron Safety Handbook (1st Edition) was published in 2015. The primary focus of the handbook is to improve the safety of airport operations in the apron area. Consequently, the handbook includes guidance related to the planning, design, and operation of multiple apron facilities. However, the handbook directs readers to the current edition of the ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition) (ACI 2017) for guidance specific to apron markings. 2.3.3 Civil Aviation Authority, CAP 637: Visual Aids Handbook The Civil Aviation Authority of the United Kingdom publishes CAP 637: Visual Aids Hand- book. The current edition of the handbook was published in 2007. Chapter 2 includes some brief guidance related to the surface-painted markings in apron areas. Specifically, an example of a marking layout is shown for a commercial terminal gate and for a self-maneuvering gate stand. No specific guidance related to the application of these markings is provided. Exhibit 11. Alternative aircraft stand taxilane. Source: ACI. Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition). 2017. Copyrighted and used with permission.

Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings 19 2.3.4 ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1—Aerodrome Design and Operations (8th Edition) ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1—Aerodrome Design and Operations (8th Edition) (ICAO 2018) contains international standards related to the design and operation of airports. Chapter 5 of Annex 14 provides Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) related to a variety of airfield markings, including those in apron areas. The guidance in Annex 14 is basic, as general recom- mendations are provided for aircraft stand markings on paved aprons and deicing facilities. Annex 14 states that additional guidance regarding apron markings can be found in ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4—Visual Aids (5th Edition) (ICAO 2021). 2.3.5 ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2— Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays (5th Edition) ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2 (ICAO 2020) provides SARPs related to the planning and design of aircraft taxiways, aprons, and holding bays. While the marking of these areas/facilities is specifically addressed in ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4— Visual Aids (5th Edition) (ICAO 2021), Part 2 provides guidance related to the overall layout of apron areas, which affects the location of apron markings in important ways. Specifically, Part 2 includes guidance related to various commercial terminal aircraft parking configurations, which have an important influence on apron markings. These parking configurations are • Self-Maneuvering Configurations (e.g., no tug) – Taxi-in/taxi-out (angled nose-in parking) – Taxi-in/taxi-out (angled nose-out parking) – Taxi-in/taxi-out (parallel parking) • Tug-Assisted Configurations – Taxi-in/push-out Exhibit 12. Tractor push-back line and push-back limit line. Source: ACI World. Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition). 2017. Copyrighted and used with permission.

20 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings Part 2 also provides guidance on the sizing and layout of aircraft deicing facilities, which affect the apron markings in the areas in which the facilities are located. 2.3.6 ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4— Visual Aids (5th Edition) ICAO Doc 9157: Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4 (5th Edition) (ICAO 2021) provides SARPs related to visual aids (markings, signs, lighting, and so forth) throughout the airport environment. Chapter 2 of Part 4 provides specific guidance related to apron markings at airports. The majority of the guidance is applicable to the movement of aircraft to/from established parking locations (e.g., a terminal building or hardstand) and to circumstances in which the aircraft is expected to power-in/power-out from the parking position without the assistance of a tug. The guidance contains a number of specific markings, including: • Lead-in lines, • Turning lines, • Lead-out lines, and • Reference bars (e.g., turn bar, stop line, and alignment bar). Additionally, the guidance specifically states that dashed markings should be used when one or more sets of alternate apron markings are superimposed on the primary markings. An example of these markings is shown in Exhibit 13, which is from the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4—Visual Aids. Arrows should be located along the lead-in, lead-out, and turning lines if the aircraft is supposed to travel in a particular direction when following the markings. The guidance in Part 4 closely aligns with much of the guidance in the ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook (3rd Edition) (ACI 2017). 2.3.7 UAF&FA (Infrastructure Workgroup)— Apron Markings and Signage UAF&FA (Infrastructure Workgroup) published the Apron Markings and Signage guide, which was last updated in 2018. The guidance is published in French but was translated to English for review as part of this literature review. The document provides multiple examples of unique apron marking practices used across the globe and recommends specific combinations of markings, signage, and lighting to address operational needs and safety issues. Similar to this study, the publication provides a variety of examples of unique apron/ramp markings. 2.4 Existing Guidance Material—Summary of Similarities and Differences The publications in this literature review have a similar focus in that they provide recommen- dations regarding the markings needed to facilitate the safe and efficient movement of aircraft, equipment, and personnel on apron areas. Additionally, many of the markings discussed in each publication use similar coloration and shapes to communicate the marking’s intent. For example, red markings or markings with crosshatching are consistently used to identify areas in which equipment should not be parked. However, there are multiple differences that were noted and that individuals who use these materials should be aware of: • Different Terminology. As mentioned earlier, many of the publications use different terminology to refer to markings intended to perform a similar function. For example,

Literature Review: Guideline Material for Airfield Markings 21 the aircraft safety envelope marking is referred to by the different terms in the following publications: – ACRP Report 96: Airport Planning and Design Guidebook (Ricondo & Associates, Inc., et al. 2013)—aircraft safety envelope – A4A SG 908 (A4A 2017)—aircraft safety zone – ACI World—Apron Markings and Signs Handbook—stand safety line • Variations in Taxilane Centerline Coloration. Much of the international/non-U.S. guide- lines consider marking taxilane centerlines in various colors. However, the domestic guide- lines do not consider the use of different colors for taxilane centerline markings as a standard practice. • Pull-In/Push-Back Versus Self-Maneuvering. The majority of domestic guidelines focus on accommodating aircraft movements into and out of parking positions by using a pull-in/ push-back style of operation in which the aircraft pulls into the parking position under its own power and is then pushed back by a tug for departure. The international/non-U.S. guidance Exhibit 13. Aircraft parking position markings. Source: ICAO, Doc 9157, Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4—Visual Aids (5th Edition). 2021. Copyrighted and used with permission.

22 Airfield Apron and Ramp Surface Markings includes a deeper discussion on the markings applicable to aircraft self-maneuvering in which the pilot is responsible for powering the aircraft into and out of its established parking posi- tion. This guidance also includes the use of arrows within a taxilane centerline or a lead-in/ lead-out line to communicate when an aircraft is intended to operate only in a specific direction. • Solid Versus Dashed Lead-In/Lead-Out Lines. The international/non-U.S. guidance con- sistently recommends that solid yellow lead-in/lead-out lines should be used for the primary markings of an aircraft’s parking position and that dashed markings should be used for alternative/secondary markings. The domestic materials reviewed did not contain these guidelines. • Operating Restrictions. The international/non-U.S. materials reviewed include discussions related to maximum wingspan markings or other informational markings that guide pilots regarding the operation of their aircraft (no left turn, max span, and so forth). The domestic materials reviewed did not contain this information. Appendix D provides a table showing the various apron/ramp markings identified in the literary sources that were reviewed. As mentioned previously, the terminology used for some markings varies from source to source. The terminology used in the domestic publications is used to classify markings to the extent possible.