Page 711
Index
A
Absorption
arsenic, 391
calcium, 301, 312, 316, 317, 322, 349-351, 355, 359-360, 616, 667
cholesterol, 188-189, 201, 229, 657, 670
copper, 379
fats, 451
fiber's effect on, 6
food energy, 139
iron, 71, 77, 88, 92, 94, 301. 302, 368, 370, 517
phosphorus, 86
plant sterols, 201
vitamin B12, 88
Acetylcholine, 217
Acne, 516
Additives, food, see Food additives
Adenosine triphosphate (ADP), 143, 191, 419
Adipose tissue/adiposity
animals studies of, 148
blood flow and blood pressure in, 149
brown adipose tissue, 146-147, 436
carbohydrate intake and, 277
diabetes mellitus and, 123
distribution of, see Body fat distribution
energy intake and, 148
excess energy storage as, 139
fatty acids and, 28, 186, 193, 215
insulin resistance in, 149, 152
linoleic acid in, 203
lipoprotein lipase levels in, 143
norepinephrine and, 149
metabolism of, 147
obesity and, 147
osteoporosis and, 621
standards, 565-567
see also Obesity
Adrenal hyperfunction, 150
b-Adrenergic receptors, 152
Aflatoxins
carcinogenicity, 12, 264, 440, 490, 662, 665
liver cancer and, 119, 596-597, 601
protection against, 5, 478, 665
in trout, 490
see also Mycotoxins
Africa
cancer in, 117, 119, 120, 296, 334, 384, 386, 486-487
dental caries in, 127
serum cholesterol levels in, 166, 333
see also specific countries
Age
alcohol intake and, 61-62, 432, 451-452
atherosclerotic lesion characteristics and, 166
calcium intake and, 17, 69, 76, 264-265, 317, 347-351, 353, 354
body fat and, 139
breast cancer and, 119, 120, 207
CHD and, 101, 102, 165, 167, 445, 532
cholesterol intake and, 58, 161
diabetes mellitus and, 122, 123
eating patterns and, 75
energy expenditure and, 142, 146, 153
energy intake and, 52, 53, 59, 77-79, 89, 140-141, 146, 148, 153
fiber intake and, 294
gallbladder disease and gallstones and, 127, 218
hypertension and, 108, 109-110, 202, 416, 424, 660
intermittent claudication and, 107
lean body mass and, 147-148
liver cancer and, 119
lung cancer and, 119
mineral intake and, 69-74, 77-79, 81
obesity and overweight and, 90, 115
osteoporosis and, 69, 121-122, 316-318, 620
ovarian cancer and, 120
plasma lipids and lipoproteins and, 224
prostate cancer and, 120
protein intake and, 16
renal function and, 265
serum cholesterol levels and, 163, 166
strokes and, 104
sugar intake and, 59
vitamin A status and, 51, 64, 312
vitamin D synthesis and, 312
Alabama, stroke rates in, 105
Alaska, arsenic contamination of well water in, 391
Alcohol and Health Practices Survey, 61
Alcohol consumption
animal studies of, 439-442
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 442-446
blood alcohol levels and, 431
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blood pressure and, 415, 420, 442-443, 452
cancer and, 10, 16, 334, 437-442, 444, 452, 660, 673
CHD and, 16, 444-446, 533, 660, 673, 695
cigarette smoking and, 10, 444, 660
cirrhosis and, 10, 33, 92; see also Alcoholic cirrhosis
clinical studies of, 436
coronary occlusion score and, 445
cultural aspects of, 433-435
data sources on, 47
diabetes mellitus and, 446
epidemiologic evidence on, 436, 437-439
ethnographic review of, 433-434
flushing of the skin and, 88, 93
gallbladder disease and. 127
glucose tolerance and, 446
historical perspective on, 433-435
hyperlipidemia and, 443-444
hypertension and, 10, 16, 108, 415, 442-443, 660
hyperuricemia and, 447
hypoglycemia and, 446-447
insulin resistance and, 446
liver injury and, 10, 16, 33, 124-125, 447-449, 452, 673;
see also Alcoholic cirrhosis
for medicinal purposes, 434
metabolic disorders from, 446-449
neurological impairment and disorders and, 16, 431, 449-451, 452, 673
in nonliterate societies, 435
in non-Western literate societies, 435
nutritional disorders and, 10, 16, 434, 441-442, 448-449, 450-451, 634, 673
osteoporosis and, 10, 619, 660
policy implications of, 451
during pregnancy, 10, 16, 452-453, 673, 681
recommended levels of, 16, 18, 451, 673, 675, 678-680, 682-683, 686-688
renal disease (chronic) and, 447, 452
reporting of, 25, 27, 60, 61, 81, 436, 442
sex differences in, 432-433, 452
stroke and, 105, 442-443, 452, 660
trace element intake from, 376
transcultural anthropological perspective on, 434
vitamin deficiencies and, 335, 450-451, 452
in Western societies, 434-435
see also Ethanol
Alcohol dehydrogenase, 88, 93, 440, 448
Alcoholic beverages
ale, 61
amount of ethanol in, 432
beer, 10, 16, 60, 61, 432-439, 441, 444, 445, 447, 451, 475, 660, 673
calories supplied by, 62, 140, 435-436
carbohydrate content of, 436
carcinogens in, 441, 452, 475, 480, 486
cognac, 436
86 proof, 443
gin, 434
rum, 434
vermouth, 441
vodka, 436
whiskey, 62, 393, 432, 434, 436, 437
wine, 16, 60, 61, 391, 392, 432-434, 436, 438, 439, 441, 444, 445, 673
see also Alcohol consumption: Ethanol: and specific alcoholic beverages
Alcoholic cardiomyopathy, 446
Alcoholic cirrhosis
age and, 125
animal studies of, 33
diagnosis of, 124
epidemiology of, 447-448
ethnic correlates of, 125
genetic and familial factors in, 92, 634
liver cancer and, 438-439
megaloblastic anemia and, 338
in migrants, 125
mortality rates, 125-126, 435, 447
nutritional factors in, 335, 336, 338, 448-449, 451, 634
population differences in frequency of, 125
relation to alcoholism, 447-448, 660
socioeconomic status and, 125
time trends in morbidity and mortality, 125-126
see also Liver disease
Alcoholic dementia, 449
Alcoholic peripheral neuropathy, 449
Alcoholic polyneuritis, 334
Alcoholism and alcohol abuse
carcinogenic effects of dietary deficiencies associated with, 334, 441-442
defined, 431
electroencephalographic activity and, 93
genetic and environmental factors in, 92-93, 433
liver damage from, 124-125, 334, 336, 338-340, 452, 660
male-limited susceptibility to, 93
markers of genetic susceptibility, 93
milieu-limited susceptibility to, 93
nutrient deficiencies from, 284, 334, 337-340, 357, 434, 450-452, 660
organ damage from, 92
prevalence of, 16, 433, 451, 673
racial and ethnic differences in, 443, 452
research needs on. 95, 453, 542, 556
symptoms of drunkenness, 431
Aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency, 88, 93
Alginates, 74
Alkaline phosphatase, 302
Alkyl benzenes, 488
Allergic reactions, 478
Allyl isothiocyanate, 490
Aluminum
Alzheimer's disease and, 387-388, 395
cancer and, 387
clinical studies of, 387-388
dietary sources of, 387
epidemiologic studies of, 387-388
intake trends, 387
short-term tests of, 387
Alzheimer's disease
manganese and, 386
treatment of, 216
American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry, 17, 674
American Academy of Pediatrics, 17, 226, 674, 684-685
American Cancer Society, 676
American Dental Association, 17, 674
American Diabetes Association, 667, 676, 681
American Health Foundation, 685, 686
American Heart Association
dietary recommendations, 226, 667, 676, 677, 685, 686
risk calculations for coronary disease events, 108-109
American Indians, see Native Americans, and specific tribes
American Medical Association, 676
Ames test, see Mutagenicity tests
Amino acids
classification of, 259
data sources on availability of, 47
deficiencies, 262
glucogenesis from, 446
metabolism of, 337
requirement changes, 259
substitutions in apolipoproteins, 168
sulfur-containing, 423
see also Essential amino acids; and specific amino acids
4-Aminobiphenyl, 478
2-Aminofluorene, 264, 381, 384, 440
Aminoimidazoquinoline, 485
Aminomethylimidazoquinoline, 485
Aminopolysaccharides, 291
Ammonia, 86
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, 387
Anagyrine, 490
Analytical methods
b-carotene, 313
dietary cholesterol, 199
fiber, 292-293
folacin in foods, 67
Anemia
copper deficiency and, 381, 517
iron deficiency, 77, 88, 369-370, 395
megaloblastic, 338
microcytic, 373
monitoring children and pregnant women for, 44, 51
pernicious, 88
Page 713
Angina pectoris, 100, 107, 320, 444, 514, 530;
see also Coronary heart disease
Aniline, 478
Animal fat
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 15, 672
biologic marker of intake, 221
cancer and, 206, 209, 214, 229, 299
cholesterol increases from, 179
SFAs in, 159
thrombotic brain infarction and, 194
Animal models
atherosclerosis, 33, 171, 200, 227, 228, 295, 532
dental caries, 280
diabetes mellitus, 150, 152, 276-278, 299
hypercholesterolemia, 33, 171, 228
hyperlipidemia, 200
hypertension, 33, 149, 204-205, 262, 281, 390, 417, 423
obesity, 91, 143, 145, 146, 221, 222, 277, 278, 281
pellagra, 33
scurvy, 33
sexually dimorphic, 276
strike, 262
see also Laboratory animals
Animal protein
atherosclerotic lesions and, 193, 265, 533
cancer and, 15, 207, 263, 659, 673
fat association with, 16, 260, 659
food sources of, see Meats
gallstones and, 300
hypercholesterolemia and, 261, 265
intake trends, 9, 181, 259, 654
nutrients provided by, 16
recommended intakes of, 15-16, 17-18, 672-673, 675, 681, 682
serum cholesterol levels from, 9, 181, 261, 533
Animal studies
Alzheimer's disease, 388
arsenic, 392
aspartame, 473-474
atherosclerosis, 112-113, 161, 169, 176, 189, 196, 200
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, 148-149, 151-152, 195-196, 200-201, 333-334, 376-377, 381, 382
BHA, 476-477
BHT, 477
biotin, 340
cancer, 7, 8, 150-151, 153, 213-215, 264, 282-283, 297-298, 314, 315-316, 319-320, 321, 332-333, 335-340, 357, 368-369, 371-372, 378, 381-382, 384-387, 389, 391-394, 439-442, 468-469, 472, 473-474, 476-477, 576, 600-604:
see also specific cancer sites
carbohydrates, 276-277, 280-283, 601-602
b-carotene and other carotenoids, 314
chromium, 382-383
coffee and tea, 468-469, 470-471
criteria used to assess, 34-35
cyclamate, 473
dental caries, 280-281, 374, 641-642
design problems in, 150, 260, 378
diabetes mellitus, 149-150, 152, 153, 276-278, 299-300, 385-386, 629-630
dietary cholesterol, 8, 171, 200-201
dietary fats containing no cholesterol, 196
endocrine disorders, 582
energy balance and body weight, 145
energy expenditure and chronic disease, 151-152, 153
energy expenditure-storage relationship, 145-146
extrapolation of findings to humans, 4, 35, 37, 278, 653
fats and lipids, 7, 148-149, 171, 189, 204-205, 213-215, 221-222, 600-601
fiber, 295-296, 297-298, 299-300, 602
folacin, 338
food colors, 478-479
gallbladder disease and gallstones, 219-220
generalizability of results from, 280
human studies compared to, 35-36
hypercholesterolemia, 161
hyperlipidemia, 295-296
hypertension, 262, 340, 356, 359, 375, 390, 394, 417-418, 553, 574-575
IDDM, 277-278
interpretation of results from, 34
interspecies variability in responses, 4, 33-34, 35, 200, 476, 653
iron-deficiency anemia, 370
liver disease, 335-336, 338, 340
magnesium, 359
manganese, 385-386
mercury, 391
methodological issues, 200-201
molybdenum, 386-387
mycotoxins, 487
niacin, 336
NIDDM, 276-277
nitrites, nitrates, and N-nitroso compounds, 475-476
nonnutritive dietary components, 603-604
nutrient levels in, 150
of obesity, 7, 91, 143, 145, 146-147, 221-222, 281-282, 574-575, 576, 577, 582
osteoporosis and osteomalacia, 317, 354, 619-620
pair feeding in, 145, 149, 153
pantothenic acid, 340
peanut oil, 196
plasma lipids and lipoproteins from fat intake, 189
polybrominated biphenyls, 480
polychlorinated biphenyls, 480
polyvinyl chloride, 481
potassium, 423
protein, 261, 262-263, 264, 265, 601
PUFAs, 8, 159, 187, 188, 195-196
renal disease (chronic), 265, 395
reproductive effects of nonnutrients, 470-471
retinol and other retinoids, 315-316, 602
riboflavin, 335-336
role in nutrition research, 33, 34, 35-36
saccharin, 472
SFAs, 195-196
sex-specific responses to caloric intake, 145
strengths and weaknesses of, 4, 33-34, 35
stroke, 262-263
triglycerides, 171
vitamin B12, 339
vitamin D, 317
weight gain and loss cycles, 577
weighting of evidence from, 4, 35, 37-38, 653
see also Experimental evidence; Laboratory methods
Anorexia nervosa, 358, 583-584
Anthropomorphic measurements, 143, 450
Antibiotics, 322
Antocoagulants, 322
Antithrombotic agents, 191
a1,-Antitrypsin deficiency, 124
Apnea, prolonged, 88
Appalachia, CHD in, 102
Apolipoproteins
alcohol intake and, 443
Apo A, 88, 163, 169, 188, 223, 276, 277, 294, 443
Apo B, 89, 169, 171, 187, 199, 277, 294
Apo D, 163
atherosclerosis and, 168-169
carbohydrate intake and, 277
CHD and, 88, 168-171, 534, 536
diabetes mellitus and, 276
dietary cholesterol intake and, 199, 223
dietary responsiveness and, 169
familial combined hyperlipidemia and, 89
familial dysbetalipoproteinemia and, 168
families of, 163
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genetic polymorphisms, 168-169
hyperlipidemia and, 168
interaction with dietary fats, 168
LDL cholesterol and, 168
peripheral vascular disease and, 169
predictive power of, 169-170
research needs on, 89
plasma cholesterol and, 168
in vegetarians, 294
b-VLDL cholesterol and, 168
Apples, 73
Arabinogalactans, 300
Arachidonic acid
food sources of, 159
homeostatic actions of, 190
metabolism in humans, 177, 190, 191
structure of, 159
synthesis of, 159
see also w-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Arginine, 261
Arsenic
absorption, retention, and excretion of, 391
animal studies of, 392
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 391
biologic role of, 391
dietary sources of, 391
epidemiologic studies of, 391, 392
occupational exposures to, 392
short-term tests of, 392
Arterial aneurysms, 105
Arteriosclerosis
defined, 161
diabetes mellitus and, 124
obliterans, 105
plaque formation, 105
see also Atherosclerosis
Arthritis
hemochromatosis and, 92
see also Osteoarthritis
Artificial sweeteners, taste of, 85;
see also specific sweeteners
b-Asarone, 488
Asbestos fibers, 441
Ascaris infection, 321
Ascorbic acid, see Vitamin C
Ashkenazi Jews, 94
Asia
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 447
dental caries in, 127
diabetes mellitus in, 276
gallstones in, 126
serum cholesterol levels in, 166
see also specific countries
Asian Americans
alcohol intake by, 433
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
dental caries in, 128
diabetes mellitus in, 123
osteoporosis in, 122
Asian Indians, diabetes mellitus in, 123
see also Food additives
Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 293
Atherogenesis
apolipoproteins as predictors of, 169-170
endothelial injury and, 177
in vitro studies of, 176-177
LDLs and, 198
triglyceride structure and, 196
VLDLs and, 170
Atherosclerosis
animal models and studies of, 33, 112-113, 161, 171, 176, 189, 200-201, 227, 228, 295, 333-334
apolipoproteins and, 168-169
blood coagulation and, 190, 191
blood pressure and, 103
cerebral, 262
cholesterol intake and, 8, 161-162, 201, 657
childhood origin of, 222
cigarette smoking and, 103
in control subjects, 31
defined, 161
fat intake and, 162, 275, 655-656
trans fatty acids and, 193
fiber intake and, 295-296, 303
HDL cholesterol and, 176
human studies of, 333
hydrogenated vegetable oils and, 195-196
hypercholesterolemia and, 176, 222
individual risk factors, 103, 167, 168
LDL cholesterol and, 171, 172, 176
lesion characteristics in, 164, 529-530
lipoproteins and, 29, 168, 169
mortality rates, 103
myocardial infarction and, 161
pathogenesis of, 30, 33, 168, 175, 177, 529-530
platelet function and, 190
population differences in, 164
population risk of, 103
protective effects of nutrients for, 217, 303
w-3 PUFAs and, 191
sequelae, see Coronary heart disease; Peripheral vascular disease; Stroke
serum cholesterol and, 29, 103, 161, 162, 165-166, 227, 333
SFA intake and, 7-8, 195-196, 228, 656
stroke and, 104
subclinical detection of, 29-30
thrombosis and, 161
triglycerides and, 175
VLDLs and, 175
vitamin C and, 333-334
see also Arteriosclerosis
Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases
alcohol and, 442-446
animal studies of, 148-149, 151-152, 376-377, 380, 382, 392
arsenic and, 391
blood pressure and, 112-113
body fat distribution and, 114, 117
carbohydrates and, 278-279
chromium and, 381-382
clinical studies of, 148, 151, 198-200, 370, 376, 380, 381-382, 571-572
copper and, 380
dietary cholesterol and, 7, 15, 161-162, 178, 197-198, 656, 666, 670
energy expenditure and, 151-152
energy intake and, 148-149, 380
epidemiologic studies of, 148, 151, 163-171, 192-194, 197-198, 370, 376, 381-382, 391, 569-571
fats and, 6, 7, 15, 33, 161-201, 227-228, 655-656
fatty acids and, 192-196
fiber and, 15
HDL levels and, 117
historical background on, 161-162
hypertension and, 107
intermittent claudication in, 107
lead intake and, 392
lipoprotein levels and, 117, 163-178, 571-572, 670
obesity and, 117, 221, 569-572, 676
plant sterols and, 201
plasma lipid levels and, 163-178
prediction formulas for, 167
prospective studies of, 570-571
protective dietary components for, 6, 672
protein and, 15
retrospective life insurance studies of, 569-570
selenium intake and, 376-377
serum cholesterol levels and, 32, 196, 670
vitamin E and, 320
zinc and, 370
see also Coronary heart disease; Peripheral vascular diseases; Stroke
Atherosclerotic lesions
animal protein intake and, 193
in animals, 200
apolipoproteins in, 169
characteristics of, 161, 165-167, 193, 530-531
fat intake and, 193
malondialdehyde-LDL in, 177
plasma lipids and liproproteins and, 169, 223-224
progression of fatty streaks to fibrous plaques, 222, 529-530
serum cholesterol and, 166, 167
vegetable protein and starch intake and, 193
see also Plaque
Atherosclerotic occlusive disease, 333
Atherothrombotic disease, 175
Atractylosides, 467
Attention-deficit disorders, 283
Attributable risk, defined, 165
Australia
cancer in, 207-209, 297, 332, 356, 438
dietary recommendations in, 682, 686
gallstones in, 126
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obesity and overweight in, 114-115
Austria, CHD in, 100-101
Autopsy data
accuracy of, 29
on alcoholic cirrhosis, 447
on atherosclerosis, 164, 165-166, 193, 262
disease incidence and prevalence assessment through, 29, 127
on PAD, 106
to study early stages of disease, 29-30
Avidin, 340
Azobenzene, 478
Azoxymethane, 297-298
B
B vitamins, enrichment of foods with, 74; see also Biotin; Folacin; Niacin; Pantothenic acid; Riboflavin; Thiamin; Vitamin B6; Vitamin B12; Vitamins
Bakery products
carbohydrates supplied by, 15, 18, 60, 672
dough conditioners in, 74
enrichment of, 75
fats contributed by, 13, 15, 18, 56, 58, 670, 672
intake trends, 81
nitrites in, 475
recommended intakes of, 670, 675
see also specific bakery items
Baking soda, 72
Bangladesh, Vitamin A deficiency in, 316
Barbiturates, 322
Beef, 56-58, 63, 80, 160, 207, 208, 370, 654
see also Animal fat
Behavior
carbohydrate intake and, 283
hypoglycemia and, 446
lead intake and, 395
Belgium
CHD in, 100-101
Benign prostatic hypertrophy, 371, 389
Benzanthracene, 481
Benzanthrene, 441
Benzidine, 478
Benzo[a]pyrene, 314, 321, 333, 369, 440, 476, 477, 481
Benzpyrene, 440
Beverages
availability trends, 61
carbohydrates supplied by, 59, 60
carbonated, see Soft drinks
dry mixes, 476
fortification of, 75
intake trends, 60
nutrient contribution of, 59, 74
see also Alcohol consumption; Alcoholic beverages; Coffee: Tea: and specific beverages
BHA, see Butylated hydroxyanisole
BHT, see Butylated hydroxytoluene
Bias
confounding and, 30
in diagnosis of disease, 30
in dietary surveys, 25, 44-45, 46, 55, 161, 181
in food composition data, 48
interviewer, 25
in survey questions, 55
see also Errors; Methodological issues
Bile acids, 125, 160, 162, 212-213, 215, 217-218, 219, 292, 296, 298, 301, 302, 320, 357, 440
Biliary tract lesions, 124
Binge eating, 25
Bioassays, see Laboratory methods
Bioelectric impedance analysis, 144
Biologic markers
alcoholism, 93
animal fat intake, 221
atherosclerosis, 29
colorectal cancer, 212
energy intake, 28
fatty acids, 28
hemochromatosis, 92
hyperlipoproteinemia, 170
iron nutritional status, 50, 92
lead intake, 29
osteoporosis, 29
selenium, 28
sodium or salt intake, 28, 414
value of, 28
validity checks against, 27, 28
see also Dietary data; Genetic markers
Biotin
animal studies of, 340
cancer and, 340
ESADD, 48
human studies of, 340
liver disease and, 340
safety index, 518
Blacks
adherence to dietary guidelines, 80
alcohol intake by, 61, 433, 434
atherosclerosis in, 166
cancer incidence in, 118, 119, 120, 209, 212, 339, 475
cholesterol intake trends among, 58, 161
diabetes mellitus in, 123, 333
fat intake by, 224
hypertension in, 11, 89, 95, 109, 111-112, 394, 416-417, 419, 420, 660
hypolactasia in, 88
nutrient intakes by, 69, 70-71, 73
obesity and overweight in, 90, 115-116
osteoporosis in, 122
red-cell sodium/lithium countertransport in, 89
sickle-cell disease among, 94
stroke deaths and incidence in, 15, 104, 672
see also Race or ethnicity
Bladder cancer
cholesterol intake and, 210
cigarette smoking and, 599
coffee and tea and, 467, 599, 603
epidemiologic studies of, 467, 599
fat intake and, 599
nitrates and, 475
nonnutritive sweeteners and, 471, 473, 599, 603
population differences in, 120, 599
protective dietary components for, 9, 377, 599
schistosomiasis and, 120
sex differences in, 120
trace element intake and, 387
vitamin A and, 313-315, 599, 602, 658
vitamin C and, 333
vitamin E and, 319
Blood pressure
amino acid deficiencies and, 262
alcohol intake and, 415, 420, 442-443, 452
arterial, 417
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 103, 112-113, 148
body weight and, 10, 112, 117, 146, 148, 417, 420, 659
calcium intake and, 11, 17, 262-262, 355, 356, 515, 661
cerebral vascular accidents and, 113
CHD and, 103, 107, 112-113, 376, 382, 444, 535
classification of, 107, 549-550
congestive heart failure and, 113
energy intake and, 148
environmental factors in, 112
fat intake and, 202-205
genetic or familial factors in, 112, 418
hypertensive levels, 11, 107, 415;
see also Hypertension
intermittent claudication and, 107
lead intake and, 394
linoleic acid intake and, 202, 204, 205
magnesium intake and, 358-359, 360
malnutrition and, 261
measurement of, 111
MUFA intake and, 204
myocardial infarction and, 148
population differences in, 108, 201-204, 550
potassium intake and, 11, 202, 203-204, 262-262, 355, 414, 416, 422, 424
protein intake and, 261, 262, 355
psychosocial stress and, 415, 417, 420
PUFA intake and, 204-205
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racial or ethnic differences in, 95, 111, 417
salt/sodium intake and, 11, 16-17, 89, 202-205, 414-417, 422-424, 660, 674
sex differentials in, 110-111, 442
SFA intake and, 203-205
stroke and, 11, 105, 107, 202, 442, 443
sucrose intake and, 149
survey data on, 550
trace element intake and, 375, 382, 386
tracking phenomenon, 110
variation in, 549
of vegetarians, 201, 202, 300, 302
see also Hypertension
Bloom's syndrome, 91
Body density measurement, 143
Body fat distribution
abdominal, 10, 16, 105, 144, 565, 659, 673
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 114, 117, 148
body weight and, 565
CHD and, 10, 16, 144, 659, 673
diabetes mellitus and, 10, 16, 114, 117, 123, 144, 659, 673
endometrial cancer and, 144
gallbladder disease and, 16, 673
gluteal, 10, 144, 565, 659, 673
heritability of, 90
hypertension and, 10, 16, 144, 659, 673
measurement of, 114, 144, 565-567
obesity and, 578
during pregnancy and lactation, 145
prospective epidemiologic studies of, 578
stability of, 566-567
standards for, 565
stroke and, 10, 105, 117, 144, 659
waist-hip ratios, 16, 114, 117, 144, 148, 565-567, 578
Body fat/fatness
alcohol intake and, 450
blood pressure and, 112
body weight and, 139
carbohydrate and, 276
cardiovascular disease risk and, 148-149
energy balance and, 143-144, 153
energy intake and, 144-145, 281, 282
heritability of, 117
physical exercise and, 139, 144, 146, 151
stability of, 566-567
in twins, 90
see also Obesity; Triglycerides; Body fat distribution
Body mass index
atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and, 148
carbohydrate intake and, 281
CHD and, 103
defined, 114
diabetes mellitus mortality and, 117
energy intake and, 144, 148, 221, 281
gallbladder mortality and, 117
mortality rates and, 569-570
obesity and, 90, 564-565, 566, 569-570
protein intake and, 281
skinfold measurements compared to, 114
weight-height ratios and, 563-565, 673, 678
Body weight
age and, 115
alcohol intake and, 432, 436, 450
blood pressure and, 10, 112, 117, 148, 417, 420, 659
body mass index and, 564-565
carbohydrate intake and, 276, 277
CHD and, 10, 16, 103, 659, 673
clinical data on, 144-145
cycles of loss and gain, 577, 659, 676
diabetes mellitus and, 10, 16, 149, 659, 673
energy balance and, 139, 144-145, 153
energy expenditure and, 142, 153
energy intake and, 7, 14, 52-53, 139, 144-145, 153, 282, 673
epidemiologic data on, 144, 153, 576-577
fat intake and, 7, 144, 202, 222, 656, 671
fluctuations in, 576-577
gains, 576-577
gallbladder disease and, 10, 16, 659, 673
glucose tolerance and, 10, 148, 659
hypertension and, 10, 16, 108, 112, 419, 420, 659, 673
insulin levels and, 148
intermittent claudication and, 107
LDL cholesterol and, 146
obesity and, 144, 576-577, 659
osteoporosis and, 69
physical activity and, 53, 146, 152, 673
plasma or serum lipids and, 10, 148, 659
plasma triglycerides and, 148
relative, defined, 114
stroke and, 105
of vegetarians, 77
see also Overweight
Bone density losses
alcoholism and, 451
calcium supplementation for, 515
estrogen therapy for, 515
incidence indicators, 29
phosphorus and, 358
see also Osteoporosis
Bone fractures
age and, 121
alcoholism and, 451
calcium intake and, 11, 17, 353, 515
osteoporotic, 29, 121, 316-319, 350, 353, 621
sex and, 121
vitamin D and, 316-318
Bone mass
alcoholism and, 451
bone cell activities and, 349-350
calcium intake and, 349-353
estimation of, 351
measurement of, 318
mineral balance and, 264, 349-350, 615
osteoporosis and, 350
sex and, 120
supplementation with calcium and, 352-353
vitamin D and, 316-318, 350, 353
Bosnia, CHD in, 164
Bowel, large, see Colon cancer
Bowel cancer, see Colon cancer
Bracken fern toxin, 489
Brain tumors, 211
see also specific brans
Brassicasterol, 201
Breads and rolls, 15, 18, 58, 62, 74, 76, 80, 81, 179, 279, 299, 302, 330, 672, 675
Breakfast cereals, 42, 64, 74, 75, 80, 279-280, 311, 330, 668
Breast cancer
alcohol and, 10, 439, 598, 660
animal studies of, 150, 151, 213, 214
anthropomorphic measures and, 598
caloric intake and, 150, 151, 598
coffee and tea and, 468
dietary cholesterol and, 210, 439
early diagnosis of, 120
ecogenetic factors in, 91
energy expenditure and, 152
epidemiologic studies of, 207-208, 210, 215, 229, 263, 299, 468, 598
fat intake and, 7, 14, 30, 31, 77, 205-208, 210, 214, 215, 229, 263, 282, 439, 598, 656, 671
fiber and, 77, 207, 263, 299, 302, 598, 659
folacin and, 338
genetic and familial factors in, 119-120, 439
genetic markers of, 120
incidence of, 593
hormonal status and, 117, 207, 214, 575, 598
mortality rates, 120, 439, 598, 655
nonnutritional risk factors, 439
obesity and, 117, 575, 598, 659
other cancers associated with, 118, 120
physical exercise and, 153
population differences in, 119, 206, 207
postmenopausal, 117
prevention of, 19
protective dietary components for, 9, 207, 213, 313, 332, 377
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public information programs on, 77, 120
racial, ethnic, and migrant differences in, 119, 207, 208, 598
riboflavin and, 335
sex differential in, 119-120
SFAs and, 8, 206, 207, 210, 215, 439, 598, 656
socioeconomic status and, 119
trace elements and, 380, 383-384, 389
vitamin A and, 313, 315, 439, 658
vitamin B6 and, 337
vitamin E and, 318, 319, 322, 439
Broca Index, 114
Broccoli, 69, 73, 81, 329, 488, 654;
see also Cruciferous vegetables
Brussels sprouts. 80, 81, 297. 488,
see also Cruciferous vegetables
Bulgaria, CHD death rates in, 100-101
Burke, Bertha, 24
Butter, 10, 57, 80, 160, 179, 186, 187, 207, 213, 220, 311, 312, 315, 480, 654
n-Butyl-n-(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine, 333
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), 476-477, 662
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 12, 441, 476, 477-478, 662
C
Cabbage, 80, 81, 208, 297, 329, 433, 488, 657
Caffeine
cancer and, 468
intake trends, 466
mutagenicity of, 469
sources of, 466
teratogenicity of, 470-471
Cafestol palmitate, 467
Calcitonin, 355
Calcitriol, 355
Calcium
absorption of, 301, 312, 316, 317, 322, 349-351, 355, 359-360, 616, 667
age and intake of, 17, 69, 76, 264-265, 317, 347-351, 353, 354, 616, 617
alcoholism and, 450-452
animal studies of, 354, 356, 357
balance, 16, 264-265, 317, 349-350, 355, 616, 659
bone fracture and, 11, 17, 353, 616-617
bone mass and, 349-353, 517, 616-617
biologic role of, 17, 316, 347, 360, 661
blood pressure and, 11, 17, 261-262, 355, 356, 515, 553, 661
cancer and, 11, 356-357, 514, 661
clinical studies of, 351-354, 355-356, 616-617
drug interaction with, 355
epidemiologic studies of, 351-352, 355, 356-357, 616-617, 654
estimation of intake, 351
estrogen status and, 354, 360, 617
fiber intake and, 301, 302, 354-355
food composition data availability on, 46-48
food sources of, 5, 17, 18, 69, 74, 92, 349, 666, 667, 674, 675
hyperparathyroidism and, 616, 619
hypertension and, 17, 355-356, 360, 415, 417
intake trends, 41, 69, 75, 77-79, 81, 348-349
magnesium and, 517
monitoring status, 69, 74, 81, 349
nutritional status, 69, 75, 81, 349
osteoporosis and, 5, 11, 17, 33, 264, 317, 318, 349-355, 359, 375, 515, 616-617, 619, 654, 659, 661, 666, 674
phosphorus and, 265, 354, 357-358, 360, 617-618
populations at risk of deficiencies in, 17, 76, 671, 674
protective effects of, 11, 261, 281, 357, 515
protein intake and, 354, 517, 659, 673
recommended intake of, 17, 666, 674, 678, 680, 681
safety index, 518
serum cholesterol and, 261
standards for, 48
supplementation, 11, 17, 352-354, 356, 360, 514, 515, 517, 518, 553, 617, 661, 674, 680
from tap water, 25
vitamin D and, 312, 316, 322, 353, 356, 616
California
hypertension in, 355
obesity and overweight in, 114-115
PAD in, 106
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
stroke in, 104-105
Calories
alcoholic beverages, 436
snack foods, 76
sources of, 15, 54, 56, 59, 62, 62, 80, 654, 672
see also Energy balance; Energy expenditure; Energy intake; Energy stores/storage; Food energy; Low-calorie diets
Calorimetry, 141
Cameroon, dental caries in, 127
Campesterol, 201
Canada
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
cancer in, 207, 282, 297, 299, 331, 388, 437, 467-468, 471-472, 475, 489, 699
CHD in, 100-101
dietary intake trends in, 224
dietary recommendations in, 682, 686-688
hypertension in, 442
obesity and overweight in, 114-115
Cancer
acrylonitrile and, 481-482
aflatoxins and, 486-487
alcohol intake and, 16, 437-442, 673
aluminum and, 387
animal studies of, 8, 150-151, 153, 213-215, 282-283, 314, 315-316, 319-320, 321, 332-333, 335-340, 357, 368-369, 371-372, 378, 381-387, 389, 391, 392, 394-395, 468-469, 472, 473-474, 476-477, 483-484. 576, 600-604
arsenic and, 392
aspartame and, 473-474
biotin and, 340
cadmium and, 388-389
calcium and, 356-357, 514, 603
caloric intake and, 150-151
carbohydrates and, 282, 336, 601-602, 657-658
b-carotene/carotenoids and, 15, 313-314, 658
chromium and, 382-383
cigarette smoking and, 91
classification of, 117
clinical and metabolic studies of, 211-213, 282, 321, 368, 370-371, 380-381, 385, 576
coffee and tea consumption and, 12, 467-469, 662
copper and, 380-381
country differences in occurrence of, 117;
see also specific countries
cyclamate and, 472-473
defined, 117
detection of, 29
diagnosis of, 117
dietary cholesterol and, 210
dietary data for studies of, 24
dietary guidelines for prevention of, 676, 679, 688
dietary modification and, 699-701
dietary supplementation and, 514
diethylstilbestrol and, 482
DNA repair mechanisms and, 91
ecogenetic factors in, 91
energy expenditure and, 152-153
energy intake and, 150-151, 153
environmental factors in, 12, 19, 91
epidemiologic studies of, 150, 152-153, 206-210, 263-264, 282, 313, 315, 318-319, 331-332, 356-357, 368, 370-371, 374, 377-378, 382, 383-384, 386, 387, 389-391, 392, 394, 437-439, 467-468, 471-473, 483, 575-576, 594-600, 689
ethyl carbamate and, 486
fats and, 6-8, 13-14, 54, 153, 205-210, 225-226, 228-229, 600-601, 656, 666, 668, 670, 671
fiber and, 6, 15, 80, 296-299, 303, 602, 658
food colors and, 478-479
food storage and preparation and, 51
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genetic and familial factors in, 91, 94, 211
human studies of, 334-340
lead and, 393-394
linoleic acid and, 208, 213, 227
manganese and, 385
mechanisms of action in, 441
mercury and, 390-391
naturally occurring toxicants and, 12, 486-490, 662
nitrates, nitrites, and N-nitroso compounds and, 474
nonnutritive dietary components and, 603-604, 662
niacin and, 336
obesity and, 117, 221, 575-576, 676
pantothenic acid and, 340
PBBs and, 480
PCBs and, 479-480
pesticides and, 12, 43, 483-484, 662
plant food intake and, 8
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and, 481
polyvinyl chloride and, 480-481
protective effects of foods and nutrients for, 6, 8, 11, 15, 488, 657-658, 666, 672
protein and, 15-16, 263-264, 601
public perceptions of risk factors for, 80
PUFAs and, 8, 14, 174, 194, 229, 657, 672
research objectives and priorities, 21, 51, 230, 284, 322-323, 341, 395-396, 492-493, 604-605
retinol and other retinoids and, 315-316, 658
saccharin and, 12, 471-472, 662
selenium and, 11, 319, 377-378, 602, 661
serum cholesterol and, 14, 174, 210-211, 229, 671, 692-693, 689
short-term tests for, 369, 372, 374-375, 378, 383, 385, 387, 389, 391, 392, 394, 469, 472, 473-474, 477-478
thiamin and, 334
trace elements and, 6, 395, 602-603, 666;
see also specific trace elements
tryptophan and, 486
in United States, 117-120, 593-594
vitamin A and, 51, 313-314, 315-316, 514, 516, 602, 658
vitamin B6 and, 337
vitamin C and, 331-333, 514, 602, 658
vitamin E and, 318-320, 602, 658
zinc and, 370-372, 514, 602-603
see also specific cancer sites
Canavanine, 490
Canthaxanthin, 314
Carbohydrates
in alcoholic beverages, 436
animal studies of, 276-278, 280-283
apolipoprotein levels and, 276, 277
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 278-279, 532-533, 672
attention-deficit disorders and, 283
availability trends, 53, 58-59, 80, 274, 654
blood pressure and, 203
body fat and, 282
body mass index and, 281
calories from, 59, 80, 140, 654
cancer and, 282-283, 284, 336, 657, 658, 672, 695
categories of, 58
clinical studies of, 275-276, 277, 279-282
complex, defined, 273
data sources on availability of, 47
dental caries and, 9, 127, 279-281, 284, 658, 672
energy expenditure for storage as fat, 140, 151, 221
energy intake from, 139-140
epidemiologic evidence on, 274-275, 279, 281, 282
food sources of, 14, 55, 59-60, 76, 273-274, 654, 671, 672, 675
gallstones and, 300
glucose tolerance and, 9, 274, 277, 284, 385, 657, 658
glycemic index, see Glucose tolerance
glycosuria and, 277
HDL cholesterol and, 276, 278-279
hypercholesterolemia and, 275
hyperglycemia and, 275-277, 283, 284
hyperlipidemia and, 277
hypertriglyceridemia and, 275, 276, 278
IDDM and, 277-278
indigestible, see Fiber
insulin levels and, 9, 149, 275, 277, 284, 385, 658
intake trends, 15, 54, 59, 76, 142, 273-274
interactions with other dietary constituents, 281, 330
lactose intolerance and, 283-284
LDL cholesterol and, 13, 276, 278, 671
metabolism of, 59
monitoring status, 81
NIDDM and, 9, 274-277, 284, 299, 658
obesity and, 9, 221, 277, 281-282, 284
protective effects of, 281
recommended intake of, 14, 15, 17, 18, 669-670, 671, 672, 675, 677-680, 682-683, 686
refined, 127
renal disease and, 277-278
retinopathy and, 277
serum cholesterol and, 261, 276-278
simple, defined, 273
triglyceride levels and, 275, 277, 278, 658
VLDL levels and, 275
see also Fiber; Sugars; and specific carbohydrates
Carcinogenesis
animal studies of, 33, 153, 213-215
caloric intake and, 150-151, 215
dietary fat and, 213-215
dose-response relationships in, 36
mechanisms of action in, 320, 335, 378-379, 477-478
nutritional deficiencies and, 441-442
short-term tests for, 34, 369, 372, 374-375, 378, 383, 385, 387, 389, 391, 392, 394
see also Cancer; Carcinogens
Carcinogens
biologic markers of exposure to, 51
epigenetic, 34
ethanol activation of, 440
metabolism of, 91
mutagenic action of, 91
produced in cooked foods, 481, 485-486
see also Cancer; Carcinogenesis; and specific carcinogens
Cardiac function, obesity and, 578-579
Cardiac hypertrophy, 29
Cardiovascular diseases
in children, 222
dietary cholesterol and, 6, 196-201
magnesium intake and, 359
mortality rates from, 162
phospholipids and, 217
w-3 PUFAs and, 11-90
see also Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases
Cardiovascular function, physical exercise and, 151-152
b-Carotenes and other carotenoids
animal studies of, 314
antioxidant effects of, 314
cancer and, 9, 207, 313-314, 318, 322, 334, 341, 488, 658, 672, 695
data sources on availability of, 47-48
human studies of, 313-314
hypercarotenemia and, 314
in vitro studies of, 314
intake trends, 64, 82, 311, 312
protective effects of, 9, 15, 207, 302, 314, 322, 341, 488, 658, 672
see also Vitamin A
Carotenodermia, 314
Carotenoids with no vitamin A activity
cancer and, 314
inclusion in dietary surveys, 51
Carrageenan, 291
Carrots, 64, 73, 82, 279, 311, 654
Case-comparison studies
stroke, 443
Case-control studies
cancer, 153, 207-211, 263, 264, 282, 297-299, 302, 331-332, 356, 371, 377, 387-389, 437-439, 467, 471, 472, 488, 489, 514
cigarette smoking, 437
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dietary intake assessment methods in, 24-25, 27, 208
dietary supplements, 514
hypertension, 358
methodological considerations in, 31, 193, 470, 653
myocardial infarction, 162
PAD, 175
reliability of, 31
strengths and weaknesses of, 31, 193, 208
weight of evidence for causation, 4. 35, 37, 653
see also Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts
Catechol, 490
Catecholamines, 142
Celery, 489
Celiac disease, 321
Cell cultures
barking deer fibroblasts, 478
Chinese hamster cells, 385, 391, 394, 461, 477, 478, 480, 485
cholesterol autooxidation products and, 201
hamster embryo, 374-375, 383, 385, 482, 485
HeLa cells, 482
human fetal lung fibroblasts, 476
mouse lymphoma cells, 383, 482
Novikoff ascite hepatoma cells, 383
rat alveolar macrophages, 387
Syrian hamster cells, 389, 392, 394, 482
trace element carcinogenicity, 374-375, 383, 387
see also In vitro studies and methods; Mutagenicity tests; Short-term tests and studies
Cellulose, 291-293, 295, 298-302
Centers for Disease Control, nutrition monitoring by, 44
Central America, alcohol intake in, 433
Central nervous system
genetic variation in, 88
hypertension and, 418
nutrient roles in functions of, 159
Cereal grains and cereal grain products
BHA and BHT in, 476
enrichment of, 66, 74, 75, 368
intake trends, 41, 59-60, 76, 80, 260, 293, 654
malted, 273
in meat mixtures, 75
nitrites in, 475
nutrient contribution of, 43, 62, 66, 259, 260, 273, 293, 312, 349, 370, 373, 385
nutrient losses during refining, 70
protective effects of, 8, 295, 296, 302, 666
recommended intake of, 13-15, 18, 670, 671, 672, 675
see also Breakfast cereals; Grains and grain products; Whole grains and whole-grain products
Cerebral hemorrhage, 103, 104, 105, 176, 194, 442, 531;
see also Stroke
Cerebral infarction, 103, 104, 105, 113, 423, 442, 443, 530-531:
see also Stroke
Cerebral vascular accidents, 113
Cerebrovascular disease
diabetes mellitus and, 124
intermittent claudication and, 175
w-3 PUFAs and, 192
see also Stroke
Cervical cancer, 313, 338, 377, 380, 575
Chaconine, 489
CHD, see Coronary heart disease
Cheese, 18, 56, 57, 66, 69, 71, 72, 160, 179, 194, 207, 209, 280, 281, 370, 387, 654, 675
Cheeseburgers, 56
Chicken, 73;
see also Poultry
Children, see Infants and children
Chile
alcohol-related deficiencies in, 451
peripheral vascular disease in, 391
China
arteriosclerosis in, 162
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases in, 376
cancer in, 118, 313, 315, 334, 341, 371, 386, 475, 487
gallbladder disease and gallstones in, 126
hyperlipidemia in, 443
vitamin deficiencies in, 334, 341
Chinese hamster ovary, see Cell cultures: Mutagenicity tests
Chlorogenic acid, 467
Chlorophyll, 70
Cholcalciferol, see Vitamin D
Cholecystitis, 125
Cholelithiasis
bile composition and, 219, 220
cholecystitis and, 125
clinical/metabolic studies of, 218-219
ecogenetic factors in, 219
nutritional factors in, 124, 195, 218, 220, 229
see also Gallbladder disease and gallstones
Cholestane triol, 201
Cholesterol, see Dietary cholesterol; HDL cholesterol; LDL cholesterol; Serum or plasma cholesterol
Cholesteryl esters, 162, 169, 176-177
Cholestyramine, 167
Choline, 160, 216-217, 338, 339, 448, 449
Chromium
animal studies of, 382-383
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 381-382
biologic role of, 381
CHD and, 515
clinical studies of, 381-382, 383
data sources on availability in food supply, 47
diabetes and, 383
epidemiologic studies of, 381-382
ESADDI, 48
food sources of, 381
glucose metabolism and, 381, 382, 515
intake trends, 381
protective of, 277
serum cholesterol and, 515
short-term tests of, 383
Chrysene, 441
Chylomicrons, 162-163, 177, 296, 443
Cigarette smoking
alcohol consumption and, 10, 437, 444, 445
cancer and, 10, 91, 210, 322, 368, 389, 437-438, 467, 660
cerebral infarction and, 105
CHD and, 101, 103, 151, 195, 444, 445, 531, 535
gallbladder disease and, 127
intermittent claudication and, 106, 107
myocardial infarction and, 148
osteoporosis and, 621
trace element intake from, 376, 389, 390, 392
vitamin C deficiencies and, 68
Cirrhosis of the liver
alcohol intake and, 633-634;
see also Alcoholic cirrhosis
biliary, 320
childhood, 381
classification of, 124
definition, 124
diagnosis of, 124
essential features of, 124, 633
incidence indicators, 29
morbidity and mortality, 125, 633
niacin and, 336
vitamin B6 and, 337-338
vitamin B12 and, 339
vitamin K and, 321
Citric acid cycle, 448
Citrus fruits, 9, 15, 18, 60, 61, 67, 293, 298, 329, 331, 654, 657, 672, 675
Clinical studies and trials
alcohol intake and chronic disease, 448
aluminum intake and chronic disease, 387-388
Alzheimer's disease, 387-388
angiographic end points, 171-172
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, 148, 151, 198-200, 376, 380, 381-382, 571-572
body weight fluctuations, 577 ,
calcium intake and chronic disease, 351-352, 355-357, 654
calcium supplementation, 352-354
cancer, 211-213, 282, 321, 356-357, 368, 370-371, 380-381, 385, 576
carbohydrates, 275-276, 277-278, 279-280, 281, 282, 638-640
CHD, 171-175, 193, 194-195, 260-261, 295, 534-535
cholelithiasis, 219
chromium intake and chronic disease, 381-382, 383
copper intake and chronic disease, 380-381
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crossover, 203
dental caries, 279-280, 638-641
design of, 32-33
diabetes mellitus, 149, 152, 153, 299, 372, 383, 385, 573-574, 628-629
dietary cholesterol and chronic disease, 198-199, 218
diverticulosis, 300
double-blind, 32-33, 173, 203, 216, 320
endocrine disorders, 581-582
energy balance and body weight, 144-145
energy expenditure and chronic disease, 151, 152
energy expenditure-storage relationship, 145-146
energy intake and chronic disease, 148, 149, 153, 219
exposure duration in, 32
fat or lipid intake, 7, 201-204, 218-219, 221
trans fatty acids and, 193
fiber intake and chronic disease, 295, 299, 300, 301
fluoride intake and chronic disease, 375, 640-641
gallbladder disease and gallstones, 218-219, 301, 575
hematologic responses to chronic disease, 579-580
hyperlipidemia, 295
hypertension, 202-204, 262, 300, 355-356, 394, 417
IDDM, 277
immunologic responses to chronic disease, 579-580
iron intake and chronic disease, 368
large-scale preventive trials, 172-175
lead intake and chronic disease, 394-395
liver disease, 448
manganese intake and chronic disease, 385
metabolic studies, 33, 35, 140-141, 143, 182-189, 193, 198, 211-213, 275, 277, 448
MUFA intake and chronic disease, 184
NIDDM, 273-274
Nurses' Health Study, 221
obesity, 7, 221, 281, 573-574, 575, 576, 577, 579-580, 581-582
osteoarthritis, 580
osteoporosis and osteomalacia, 264-265, 316-317, 351-352, 372, 375, 654
physical activity and chronic disease, 153
protein intake and chronic disease, 260-261, 262, 264-265
PUFA intake and chronic disease, 184-186, 218-219
randomized, 194-195, 203, 261, 320
renal disease (chronic), 265, 394-395
response to serum cholesterol, 198
selenium intake and chronic disease, 376
SFA intake and chronic disease, 182-184
sodium intake and chronic disease, 417-418
strengths and weaknesses of, 4, 32-33, 653
uses, 32
vitamin D intake and chronic disease, 316-317
vitamin E intake and chronic disease, 320
vitamin K intake and chronic disease, 321
weight of evidence for causation, 35
zinc intake and chronic disease, 370-371, 372-373
see also Intervention trials; Randomized clinical studies
Cobalamin, see Vitamin B12
Cocarcinogens, activation of, 440;
see also Ethanol
Cocoa, 281
Cocoa butter, 183
Coconut oil, 13, 159, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 189, 196, 204, 205, 213, 220, 223, 670
Cod liver oil, 191
Coenzyme Q, 320
Coffee and tea
animal studies of, 468-469, 470-471
CHD and. 11-12, 192, 469-470, 662
decaffeinated coffee, 60, 466, 469
epidemiologic studies of, 11-12, 467-468, 469-470
fluoride in tea, 74
intake patterns, 60, 76, 466-467
reproductive effects of, 470-471
serum cholesterol and, 11, 469, 533, 662
short-term tests of, 469
see also Caffeine
Cognitive development and function, 395, 449
Cohort studies, see Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts; Longitudinal (cohort) studies
Collagen, 191
Colles' fracture, 121
Colon cancer
adenomatous polyps and, 211
animal studies of, 151, 213, 297-298, 600
biologic markers of, 212
calcium and. 11, 356, 514, 661
caloric intake and. 151, 263, 595-596
carbohydrates and, 282
b-carotene and, 314
cholesterol intake and, 174, 210
clinical studies of, 212
coffee and tea and, 467-468
Dukes' A and B, 211
ecogenetic factors in, 91
epidemiologic studies of, 153, 211, 263, 296-297, 467-468
familial polyposis and, 91
fat intake and, 14, 205, 209, 282, 357, 600-601, 656, 671, 693
trans fatty acids and, 213, 600-601
fiber and, 6, 9, 210, 212, 296-298, 302, 303, 357, 602, 658, 666
folacin and, 338
food additives and, 476-477
genetic and familial factors in, 91, 118
mortality rates, 690-691
MUFAs and, 601
obesity and, 575
pantothenic acid and, 340
physical activity and, 153
population differences in, 212, 296
protective dietary components for, 8, 11, 15, 303, 315, 322, 341, 377, 488, 672
serum cholesterol and, 14, 206, 210, 211, 671. 692-693
sex differences in, 118
SFAs and, 8, 174, 215, 656, 692-693
trace elements and, 368, 377, 380, 385, 393
Colorectal cancer
calcium and, 356, 357, 360, 596
carbohydrates and, 208
dietary cholesterol and, 210, 596
endocrine-related, 210
epidemiologic studies of, 152-153, 208-209, 282, 284, 438, 595-596, 654, 657
fat intake and, 7, 77, 206, 208-209, 215, 595
fiber and, 77, 208, 296, 297, 302, 488, 596
incidence and mortality from, 118-119
linoleic acid and, 208
other cancers associated with, 118, 120, 595
MUFAs and, 596
physical activity and, 152-153
protective dietary components for, 208, 314, 596
public information programs on, 77
racial, ethnic, and migrant differences in, 118
sex differences in, 118, 119, 208
Coloring dyes, 74
Community trials
Busselton Community Study, 210
Computed tomography, 104, 144, 175, 351-353
Condiment sauces, 72
Conference of Health Effects of Blood Liproproteins, 164
Confounding/confounders
in case-comparison studies, 443
in CHD studies, 284
in cross-sectional comparisons, 24, 204, 228
defined, 30
in dietary intake data, 185, 194, 197. 274, 284
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Page 721
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in obesity studies, 114
in temporal relationships, 30-31
Congeners, 441
Congenital malformations, 124
Congestive heart failure, 29, 113, 124, 175
Connecticut
cancer in, 467
CHD in, 102
Contaminants, environmental
naturally occurring, 12, 486-490
survey data on, 51
see also Aflatoxins; Pesticides; and other specific contaminants
Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes of Individuals (CSFII)
corrections to data base, 46
dietary intake data reported by, 53-55, 62-67, 69, 70-73, 160-161, 274, 293, 312, 329-331, 348, 368, 466, 509, 511
nutrients and food constituents reported in, 47, 62-74, 312
populations represented by, 44-45, 49
Coordinated State Surveillance System, 44
Copper
absorption, 379
anemia and, 381
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 370, 380, 395
biologic role of, 379
cancer and, 380-381
cirrhosis and, 381
clinical studies of, 380-381
in contraceptive devices, 381
coronary arrhythmias and, 380
data sources on availability of, 47-48, 51
environmental sources of, 381
epidemiologic studies of, 380-381
excess intake of, 381
fiber and, 301
food sources of, 72
hypertension and, 390
interaction with other trace elements, 370, 373, 379, 380, 386, 390, 395, 517
metabolic disorders from, 124
safety index, 518
supplementation, 380
Corn bran, 299
Corn oil, 64, 159, 183, 184, 186, 187, 189, 204, 205, 213, 214, 220, 223, 261, 277, 671
Corn products, 57
Corn syrups, 273, 274, 281, 654
Coronary artery disease, 190, 192, 278, 333, 376, 659;
see also Coronary heart disease; Peripheral arterial disease; Stroke
Coronary heart disease (CHD)
age and, 101, 102, 167, 445, 532
alcohol intake and, 16, 444-446, 533, 660, 673, 695
animal studies of, 261, 295-296, 532-533
apolipoproteins and, 88, 168-171, 534, 536
blood pressure and, 103, 107, 112-113, 376, 382, 535
body fat distribution and, 16, 144, 659
body mass index and, 103
carbohydrates and, 8, 278-279, 284, 533, 657-658
case fatalities, 102
cholesterol intake and, 8, 14, 31, 33, 58, 77, 80, 103, 161, 197-198, 228, 534-536, 657, 668, 670, 694
cigarette smoking and, 101, 151, 195, 444, 445, 534, 535, 571
clinical trials of, 11-12, 171-175, 194-195, 218, 260-261, 295, 534-535
coffee and tea and, 11-12, 469-470, 533, 534, 662
commonality of risk and protective factors for, 693
coronary-prone behavior and personality and, 103, 537
country differences in incidence of, 31, 100-101, 104
diabetes mellitus and, 103, 124, 171
diet trial feasibility for, 32
eating patterns and, 103
end points, 172-175
energy intake and, 148, 534, 536-537
epidemiologic evidence on, 102, 163-171, 197-198, 260, 294-295, 369, 469-470, 533-534
ethnic, racial, and migrant differences in, 102, 149, 178
fat intake and, 5, 7, 31, 33, 54, 77, 80, 93, 102, 161, 278, 656
fiber and, 9, 294-296, 302, 303, 533, 534, 658
fish consumption and, 8, 13, 185, 192, 193, 657, 671
foods correlated with, 192
gallbladder disease and, 127
genetic and familial factors in, 86, 88-89, 93, 103, 171, 224, 536
HDL cholesterol and, 151, 166-168, 171, 376, 533-536
hypercholesterolemia and, 86, 88, 171, 172, 534, 536
hyperlipidemia and, 6, 171, 533
hypertension and, 101, 107, 535
individual risk of, 164-165, 166-168, 170
LDL cholesterol and, 166-168, 171, 178, 227, 228, 532-533, 536
manganese and, 386
morbidity, 100
mortality rates, 6, 89, 100-102, 151, 164-165, 167, 197, 445, 531-532, 572, 655, 690-691
MUFAs and, 54
nephrotic syndrome and, 171
obesity and, 376, 535, 569-570, 659
observational studies of, 533-534
occupational factors and, 102-103, 537
pathogenesis of, 99-100, 168, 175, 530
peripheral vascular disease and, 175
physical activity and, 16, 103, 151, 153, 534, 536-537
population differences in rates, 100-101, 113, 164, 168, 170, 177, 227, 532
prevention of, 113, 167, 172-175, 185, 192, 193, 194-195, 227, 679, 686-687
protective dietary components for, 8, 227, 295, 533, 534, 657-658
protein and, 9, 15-16, 260-261
psychosocial factors in, 103, 537
public information programs on, 77
public perceptions of risk for, 80
PUFAs and, 54, 193, 227-228, 533-534, 657
renal disease and, 171
risk factors for, 77, 88, 101, 102-103, 113, 171, 532-537
serum cholesterol and, 6, 86, 88, 93, 101, 102, 103, 161-164, 167, 172-175, 177-178, 195, 222, 225, 227, 228, 376, 445-446, 532, 533-534, 668, 671, 692, 697-699, 700-701
sex differences in, 100, 102, 167, 369, 536
SFAs and, 7-8, 14, 54, 77, 102, 103, 193, 228, 532-535, 656, 666, 668, 671, 694
socioeconomic factors and, 101, 102-103, 275, 532
stroke and, 105
supplement use and, 514-515
trace elements and, 369, 370, 376, 380, 515, 382
triglycerides and, 170-171
in the United States, 101, 531-532
in vegetarians, 278-279
vitamin E and, 514-515
VLDL cholesterol and, 170-171
Corpus uteri, see Uterine cancer
Correlation analysis studies, 275, 332, 352
Cottonseed oil, 64, 184, 186, 490
Crab meat, 72
Crackers, 58
Creatinine, 28
Creatinuria, 320
Criminality, and carbohydrate intake, 283, 284
Croatia, CHD in, 164
Cross-sectional studies
blood pressure, 202, 204, 415, 442
dental caries, 279
energy intakes by elderly people, 147-147
glucose tolerance, 274
hyperlipidemia, 443
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interindividual variability in, 199
peak bone mass, 350
serum cholesterol determinants, 181, 197, 198
serum lipids and lipoproteins in children, 225
suitability for studying causal relationships, 81, 197, 654
see also Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts
Croton oil, 320
Cruciferous vegetables, intake trends, 80, 81;
see also Broccoli: Brussels sprouts, Cabbage; Cauliflower: Vegetables
Cucumbers, 297
Cured foods, see Salt-cured (salt-pickled) foods
Cutin, 291
Cycad nuts, 489
Cycasin, 489-490
Cyclohexylamine, 473
Cyclophosphamide, 333
Cystic fibrosis, 223, 320, 321
Czechoslovakia
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
CHD in, 100-101
D
Dairy products
cancer risk from, 207
intake trends, 41, 260, 348, 654
iodine in, 74
nutrient contribution of, 5, 13, 14, 18, 56, 58, 62, 63, 70, 74, 260, 312, 348, 666, 667, 671, 675
recommended intake of, 13, 17, 666, 670, 674, 675
see also Milk and Milk products; and specific dairy products
Danish adoption registry, 90
Deaths, diet-associated causes of, 99;
see also Mortality rates
Death certificates
CHD coding, 100
as disease incidence/prevalence measures, 29, 30, 43, 100
stroke data on, 104
7-Dehydrocholesterol, 64, 160, 312
Delaney Clause, see Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Delaware, CHD in, 102
Demographic characteristics, see Age; Race or ethnicity; Sex differentials; and other specific characteristics
Denmark
bone fracture in, 121
cancer in, 212, 296, 437, 438, 467, 575
CHD in, 100-101
dental caries in, 127
see also Danish adoption registry
Dental caries age and, 17, 127, 128, 279
animal studies of, 280-281, 374, 641-642
B vitamins and, 642
carbohydrates and, 9, 279-281, 284, 637, 638-642, 658
clinical studies, 279-280, 638-641
consistency/texture of food and, 9, 639, 658
defined, 127
DMFT values, 127, 279, 637, 638, 640
eating patterns and, 639
enamel erosion and, 638
epidemiologic studies, 127, 128, 279, 373-374, 638-641
fluoride and, 11, 17, 74, 94, 128, 280, 373-374, 387, 395, 638, 640-641, 661, 668, 674
genetic and familial factors in, 128, 280, 643
historical evidence on, 637-638
molybdenum and, 387
oral microflora and, 280, 642, 643
phosphates and, 281
prevalence of, 127, 279, 637, 655
protective dietary components for, 280, 281, 639-641
protein and, 642
racial and ethnic differences in, 128
saliva composition and flow and, 638, 643
socioeconomic status and, 128
sucrose (sugar), 15, 280, 281, 284, 638-642, 672, 685
sulcal decay, 280
time trends in, 127-128
Deoxycorticosterone, 205, 418, 423, 424
Dextrin, 282
Diabetes mellitus
animal studies of, 149-150, 152, 153, 299-300, 385-386, 574, 629-630
body fat distribution and, 114, 117, 123, 144, 627-628
body mass index and, 117
body weight and, 149
cardiovascular complications in, 4, 124
clinical/metabolic studies of, 149, 152, 153, 299, 372, 383, 385, 573-574, 628-629
defined, 122
dietary management of, 264, 628-629
epidemiologic studies of, 149, 152, 153, 299, 372, 573, 628-629
energy expenditure and, 152, 153
energy intake and, 149-150, 153, 629
fat intake and, 628
fiber and, 9, 299-300, 301, 302, 628, 629, 658
forms, see Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
glucose intolerance and, 106, 122, 153, 628, 629
genetic and familial factors in, 123
hemochromatosis and, 92
hypertension and, 629
intermittent claudication and, 106
manganese and, 385-386
myocardial infarction and, 148
nutritional management of, 90
physical exercise and, 152, 153
population differences in, 122-123, 274-275, 627
racial and ethnic differences in, 123
renal disease, 629
as a risk ractor for other chronic diseases, 123-124, 274
socioeconomic status and, 123, 628
sugar and, 629
time trends in, 123
triglycerides and, 171, 275, 276
zinc metabolism and, 372
Diagnosis of disease
anorexia nervosa, 584
bulimia, 584-585
cirrhosis of the liver, 124
diabetes mellitus, 122
familial dysbetalipoproteinemia, 168
gallstones, 126
hypertension, 107
local biases in, 30
PAD, 105-106
pancreatic cancer, 119
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene, 481
3, 4, 9, 10-Dibenzpyrene, 319
Diet, definition of, 99
Dietary cholesterol
animal studies of, 33, 161, 200, 228
atherosclerosis and, 6-8, 13, 15, 161, 196-201, 228, 656, 657, 666, 670
autooxidation products, 201
availability trends, 53, 58, 160
biologic role of, 160, 225-226
cancer and, 174, 206, 210, 214
CHD and, 8, 14, 31, 33, 58, 77, 80, 103, 197-198, 228, 657, 668, 670-672, 694
clinical/metabolic studies of, 218
data sources on availability of, 47-48
dietary fat intake and, 222-223
food sources of, 13, 16, 58, 160, 161, 222-223, 670-671
gallbladder disease and gallstones and, 125, 127, 218, 220
hormonal status and, 210
hypercholesterolemia and, 201, 228
infant intake of, 222-223
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intake trends, 41, 58, 160, 161, 654
interactions with other nutrients, 200
intestinal absorption of, 201, 657, 670
LDL cholesterol and, 201, 657, 670
lipoprotein metabolism and, 199-200
measurement of intake, 198, 199
monitoring status, 81
plant sterols and, 201
plasma lipids and, 197
predictive equations for, 198-199, 533
prevention of absorption of, 201
racial and ethnic differences in, 161
recommended intake of, 13, 14, 17, 226, 670, 671, 675, 677-680, 682-683, 685-687
serum cholesterol and, 8, 180, 197-199, 201, 228, 657, 670
SFAs and, 200
socioeconomic status and, 58, 161
structure of, 160
variability of human response to, 8, 182-183, 197, 199, 201, 228
see also Fats; Lipids and lipoproteins; Serum or plasma cholesterol
Dietary data
accuracy of, 24, 25-27, 28, 80, 652
food composition tables, 23, 24, 25, 27-28, 652
food disappearance data, 24, 80
food frequency questionnaires, 24, 27, 207, 208
food models, 24
household food inventories, 24
on individuals, 24-25
per-capita intake, 24
24-hour recall, 24, 25, 26-27, 45, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55, 61, 63, 140, 180, 208, 261, 264, 295
volume models, 24
see also Dietary intake
Dietary guidelines and recommendations
criteria and processes for formulation of, 5-6, 18-20, 652, 665-669, 670
diabetes management, 680
implementation of, 20, 667, 669, 701-703
implications for food choices, 674-675
general health maintenance, 675, 676, 678-679
osteoporosis, 680
by other expert groups, 667, 675-690
populations versus individuals, 93-94, 652, 667-670
potential adverse consequences of, 690-691
public health impacts of, 697-701
quantitative versus qualitative, 667, 670
see also specific foods and specific nutrients
Dietary intake
correlation with biochemical indicators of nutritional status, 50
criteria for assessing adequacy of, 49-50
day-to-day variation in, 12, 25, 26, 27, 45, 49, 50, 653
educational status and, 80, 81
errors in reporting, 25, 26, 27, 46, 80
genetic factors in, 88
methods for assessing, 23-28, 45-46, 50-51, 652
national surveys of. 42-52; see also Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes of Individuals; Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; Nationwide Food Consumption Surveys; Total Diet Study
nutritional status and, 41-82
observational studies of, 225
physical activity and, 140-141
plasma/serum lipids and lipoproteins and, 224, 225
public information programs and, 80
socioeconomic status and, 41, 80, 81
strengths and weaknesses of assessment methods, 26-28, 29, 46
temporal relationship to disease pathogenesis, 30-32
see also specific foods and specific nutrients
Dietary patterns, see Diets; Eating habits and patterns
Dietary supplements/supplementation
algae, 518
amino acids, 17, 447-448, 513, 674
B complex, 509-511
bioavailability of nutrients in, 518-519
bone fracture and, 353
bone mass and, 352-353
calcium, 11, 17, 352-354, 509, 511, 514, 515, 517, 518, 661, 674
cancer and, 514
CHD, 515
clinical studies on, 352-354
for colds, 515
complicating effects of, in diagnosis of disease, 517
contaminants in, 517-518
copper, 380
definition of, 509
failure to meet advertised claims, 11, 518-519, 661
fiber, 15, 17, 295, 302, 672, 674
fish oils, 13-14, 190, 518, 671
folacin, 338
by health professionals, 512-513
inclusion in dietary intake assessments, 46
interactions with other nutrients, 517
iodine, 384
legal status of, 519
magnesium, 335
management of metabolic disorders with, 86
manganese, 386
market shares, 509
molybdenum, 335
niacin, 335
nutrient adequacy and, 513-514
phosphate, 281
w-3 PUFAs, 191
recommendations on use of, 15, 17, 518, 519-520, 671, 672, 674, 679, 684
Red Dye No. 3 in, 74
riboflavin, 335
thiamin, 449
use trends, 509-513
vitamin B, 516
vitamin E, 319, 320, 509-512, 514-515, 516-517
Dietary surveys, 23, 42-52, 140, 160-161; see also Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes of Individuals; Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; Nationwide Food Consumption Surveys; Total Diet Study
Diethylnitrosamine, 282, 333, 338, 339, 392, 439-440
Diethylstilbestrol (DES), 482
Diets
formulated meal replacements, 75
of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers, 41, 413, 431
technological changes to facilitate changes in, 5
see also Low-calorie diets; Weight-reduction dieting
3, 2'-Dimethyl-4-aminobiphenyl, 298
Diglyceride, 215
Diketopiperazine, 474
Dimethylaminoazobenzene, 335, 340
Dimethylbenzanthracene, 153, 214, 264, 282, 314, 319-320, 333, 369, 378, 379, 384, 387, 439, 477
Dimethylbenzhydrazine, 264
Dimethylbenzylamine, 371
Dimethylhydrazines, 297, 333, 368, 440
Dimethylnitrosamines, 381, 387, 440, 441
Dinitropyrenes, 485
Dioxin, 483
1, 3-Diphenyltriazine, 478
Disaccharides, 58, 208, 273, 282;
see also Lactose; Maltose; Sucrose
Disease prevention, defined, 99
Distilled liquor, see Alcoholic beverages
Diuretics, 417
Diverticulitis, 296
Page 724
DNA
metabolism, ethanol effects on, 440-441
mutations, detection of, 87
noncoding, 85
repair mechanisms, and cancer, 91
variants as genetic markers of disease, 87
see also Genetic and familial associations
Docosahexaenoic acid, 159, 190, 191
Dose-response relationships
aflatoxins and cancer, 487
alcohol and cancer, 437-439
alcohol and CHD, 444
alcohol and stroke, 443
carbohydrates and dental caries, 280
in human studies compared to animal studies, 35
fluoride and cancer, 374
and inferences of causality, 36, 38
mono- and disaccharides and cancer, 208
nonnutritive sweeteners and cancer, 472
potassium and stroke, 11
threshold, 36
upper limit in, 36
Dried beans, peas, nuts, and soybeans
availability trends, 57
nutrient contribution, 65, 67, 70, 71
see also Legumes
Drinking water
aluminum in, 387
cadmium in, 388
calcium in, 25
carcinogens in, 480
chromium in, 381-382
data sources on availability of, 47
fluoride in, 11, 74, 373, 374, 661, 668
intake trends, 62
lead in, 393-395
nitrates and nitrites in, 475
sodium in, 73
Drug reactions, from defective acetylation of drugs, 88
Dysbetalipoproteinemia. familial, 168, 171, 177
E
Eating disorders
anorexia nervosa, 583-584
bulimia, 584-585
prevalence of, 584-585
Eating habits and patterns
alternative diets, 76-79;
see also Vegetarians and vegetarianism
caloric need and, 53
CHD and, 103
dental caries and, 280-281
diabetes mellitus and, 275, 276
see also Low-calorie diets: Weight-reduction diets
reporting of, 25
see also Dietary data
Ecogenetics
cancer and, 91
CHD and, 89
hypertension and, 89
nutrition and, 88
research needs in, 95
Ecological correlations and studies
advantages of, 31
averaging across individuals in, 31
bias in, 30
confounding in, 30
discrepancies between individual correlations and, 31
food frequency assessment method in, 27
interpretation problems in, 30, 37
misclassification effects in, 30
of plasma lipids and lipoproteins in children, 224
weight of evidence for causation, 35, 37
see also Population differences
Educational attainment
body mass index and, 103
dietary intake and, 80, 81, 103
hypertension and, 112
physical activity levels and, 103
serum cholesterol levels and, 103
Eggs
atherosclerosis and, 161
CHD and, 192
ischemic heart disease and, 197
nutrient contribution of, 13, 58, 62, 64, 67, 74, 160, 161, 259, 260, 311, 312, 370, 469, 670
recommended intake of, 13, 18, 670, 696
stroke and, 194
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
blood pressure and, 204
endothelial cell metabolism of, 191
human metabolism of, 191
short-term studies of, 191
structure of, 159
Elderly people
alcohol intake by, 432, 445, 451
dietary intake and nutrition surveys of, 42
energy balance in, 147-148
fiber intakes, 294
protein intake by, 16, 264-265
see also Age
Electroencephalographic activity, and alcoholism, 93
Electrolytes, see Potassium: Sodium
Embolism, 104
Emulsifiers, 73
Encephalomalacia, 320
Endemic goiter, 383, 384-385, 395
Endometrial cancer
body fat distribution and, 16, 144
body weight and, 10, 16, 575, 659
Endocrine-related, 210
epidemiologic studies of, 264, 299, 598-599
fiber intake and, 299, 302, 599
hormonal status and, 120, 576, 598-599
hypertension and, 598-599
NIDDM and, 598-599
obesity and, 10, 117, 575, 598-599, 659
other cancers associated with, 118, 120, 598
population differences in, 120, 598
prevention of, 19
protein intake and, 264
socioeconomic status and, 120
trace elements and, 380
in the United States, 120
vitamin B6 and, 337
Endothelial cells, eicosapentanoic acid
metabolism in, 191
Energy
availability trends, 140
defined, 139
measures of, 139
needs, estimation of, 142
see also Calories: Food energy
Energy balance
animal studies of, 145, 146-147
body fat and, 153
body weight and, 139, 144-145, 153
clinical data on, 144-145, 146
defined, 139
in elderly people, 147-148
energy expenditure-storage relationship, 145-147, 153
epidemiologic data on, 144, 145-146, 153
measurement of body fat and, 143-144
metabolic mechanisms in, 143
obesity and, 10, 567-568, 655, 659
during pregnancy and lactation, 139, 147
in rapid growth periods, 147
Energy expenditure
age and, 146
animal studies of, 143, 146-147, 151-152, 153
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 151-152
cancer and, 152-153
for carbohydrate storage as fat, 140, 151, 221
clinical data on, 146, 151, 152
components of, 141-142
diabetes mellitus and, 152, 153
energy intake and, 140
epidemiologic data on, 145-146, 151, 152-153
factors influencing, 142-143, 153
for fat storage, 140, 151, 221, 671
historical trends in, 142
net energy stores and, 145-147
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obesity and, 10, 142-143, 221, 567-568, 659
physical activity and, 142-143, 153
for protein storage as fat, 140, 151
resting, 142
Energy intake
animal studies of, 145, 148-151, 153
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 148-149
biologic markers of, 28
blood pressure and, 148
body fat and, 144-145, 148, 281
body mass index and, 144, 148, 281
body weight and, 7, 10, 52, 144-145
from carbohydrates, 139-140
CHD and, 148
clinical studies of, 144-145, 148, 149, 153, 219
diabetes mellitus and, 149-150, 153
energy expenditure and, 140
energy stores and, 144-145, 153
epidemiologic studies of, 144, 148, 149, 150
factors influencing, 140-141, 153, 294
from fats, 7, 139-140, 148, 215
food records of, 26
glucose tolerance and, 149
historical trends in, 140, 142
hypertension and, 149
malnutrition and, 139
myocardial infarction and, 148
obesity and, 10, 149, 220, 281, 284, 567-568
from protein, 139-140
recommended levels of, 17, 18, 226, 675
resting metabolic rate and, 146
serum cholesterol and, 180
serum triglycerides and, 148
sex and, 53, 59, 77-79, 81, 140, 145, 148
stroke and, 148
surveys of, 140
temperature (ambient) and, 140-141
trends in, 16, 52-54, 76-79, 142, 148, 180, 180, 220-221
Energy stores/storage
animal studies of, 145, 146-147
body weight and, 144-145
caloric intake and, 144-145
clinical data on, 144-145, 146
energy expenditure and, 145-147
epidemiologic data on, 144, 145-146
England/Wales
cancer in, 296, 380, 387, 467, 471, 475
diabetes in, 299
hypertension in, 108
see also United Kingdom
Enrichment, see Fortification and enrichment
Environmental factors
gallbladder disease and gallstones, 126
interaction of genetics with, 87, 94, 95:
see also Ecogenetics
in stroke, 104-105
serum cholesterol levels and, 164
see also Migrants
Enzymes
for detoxification of ammonia, 86
genetic variability in activities of, 85-87, 93
see also specific enzymes
Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts
Albany Study of New York civil servants, 444
alcohol consumption, 436, 437-439
aluminum, 387-388
Alzheimer's disease, 387-388
Ashkenazi Jews, 94
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, 148, 151, 163-171, 192-194, 197-198, 227, 370, 376, 380, 381-382, 391, 422-423, 569-571
Benedictine and Trappist monks, 202
body fat distribution, 578
body weight fluctuations, 576-577
Bogalusa Heart Study, 111, 166, 223, 224, 512
British civil servants, 151, 152, 165, 444
British Regional Heart Study, 167, 444, 445
Busselton Study, 444
cadmium, 388-390
calcium, 351-352, 355, 356-357
cancer, 7, 150, 152-153, 205-210, 215, 228-229, 263-264, 282, 296-297, 299, 313-314, 315, 331-332, 334-335, 356-357, 368, 370-371, 374, 377-378, 380-381, 382, 383-384, 386, 387, 388-389, 391-392, 393, 437-439, 467-468, 471-472, 575-576, 598-599, 654;
see also specific cancer sites
Cape Town, South Africa, cohort, 179
carbohydrates, 274-275, 279, 281, 282, 638-640
b-carotenes, 313-314
CHD, 163-171, 197-198, 227, 260, 295-296, 369, 469-470
Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry, 692
Chicago Gas and Electric Study, 577, 692
Chicago Stroke Study, 105, 175, 540
chromium, 381-382
coffee and tea and, 467-468, 469-470
copper, 380-381
criteria for evaluating, 28-29
cyclamate, 472
Danish brewery workers, 437, 438
dental caries, 127, 128, 279, 373-374, 638-641
diabetes mellitus, 122, 149, 152, 153, 299, 372, 573, 628-629
dietary cholesterol, 197-198
diverticulosis, 300
endemic goiter, 384-385
endocrine disorders, 581
energy balance and body weight, 144, 153
energy expenditure and chronic disease, 151, 152-153
energy expenditure-storage relationship, 145-146
Evans County Study, 111, 112, 315, 689
Faribault Study, 200
fats, 7, 178-181, 192-194, 201-205, 206-210, 220-221
fiber, 294-295, 296-297, 298-299, 300-301
Finnish alcoholics, 438
fluoride, 373-374, 375, 640-641
Four European Communities Study, 166
gallbladder disease and gallstones, 218, 300-301, 575
Göteborg studies, 105, 148, 578, 693
Greenland Eskimos, 185, 190, 192
Harvard University alumni, 151
Hiroshima Adult Health Study, 165
historical food supply data in, 42
Honolulu Heart Program, 165, 175, 193, 197, 202, 210, 319, 442-445, 534
Honolulu Heart Study, 29, 105, 148, 165, 170, 260, 535, 540, 577, 578, 689
hyperlipidemia, 294-295
hypertension, 201-204, 261-262, 300, 355, 358-359, 389-390, 394
immunologic consequences of disease, 579
International Atherosclerosis Project, 164
iodine, 383-385
Iranian cohort, 118
Ireland-Boston Diet-Heart Study, 102, 115, 181, 193, 197, 294-295, 534
iron-deficiency anemia, 369-370
Israel Ischemic Heart Disease Study (civil servants), 122, 163, 164-165, 166, 167, 179, 193, 274, 692
Israeli Heart Study, 149
Jerusalem Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study, 163, 166
Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study, 140, 442, 444
lipoprotein levels, 163-171, 178-181
London Busmen Study, 444
magnesium, 358-359
metabolic, 203
methodological issues, 197
Minamata disease, 391
Minneapolis businessmen, 167
molybdenum, 386
mycotoxins, 486-487
National Diet-Heart Study, 32
Nauruans (South Pacific), 103, 123
New Zealand Maoris, 211, 296, 689
Ni-Hon-San study, 102, 104-105, 114-115, 163, 164, 180
NIDDM, 274-275
nitrites, nitrates, and N-nitroso compounds, 475
nurse cohort, 27, 207, 210, 439, 512, 575
(continued on next page)
Page 726
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Nutrition Canada Survey, 445
obesity, 90, 144, 220-221, 281, 569-571, 573, 575-578, 579, 580, 581
osteoarthritis, 580
osteoporosis and osteomalacia, 264-265, 316-317, 351-352, 372-373, 375
physical activity and chronic disease, 153
plasma lipid levels, 163-171, 178-181
population studies, 178-181
polybrominated biphenyls, 480
polychlorinated biphenyls, 479-480
polyvinyl chloride, 480-481
potassium, 422-423
protein, 260, 261-262, 263-265
Puerto Rico Heart Health Program, 29, 440, 689
Puerto Rico Heart Study, 166, 170, 193, 260
renal disease (chronic), 265, 394-395
Ranch Hand Study, 483
reproductive effects, 470
Rochester, Minnesota, cohort, 102-106, 123, 539, 584
serum cholesterol, 163-164
Seven Countries Study, 100, 163, 164, 166, 178, 192, 211, 445, 446, 535, 537, 693, 698
sodium, 415-417
strengths and weaknesses of, 4
Swedish copper smelter workers, 391
Third National Cancer Survey, 439
Tromsö Heart Study, 167, 168-169
U.S. Pooling Project, 164, 165, 692
vegetarians/vegetarianism, 201, 260, 262
Vipeholm mental patients, 279, 280
vitamin D, 316-317
Western Electric Study, 193, 197, 444, 445, 534, 577, 692
Whitehall study (British civil servants), 151, 152, 165, 444, 445, 689
Yugoslavia Cardiovascular Disease Study, 444, 445, 692
Zutphen Study, 144, 193, 197, 534
see also Case-control studies; Cross-sectional studies; Human studies; Framingham Study; Longitudinal (cohort) studies; Prospective studies and specific ethnic groups and countries
Ergocalciferol, see Vitamin D
Errors
in day-to-day dietary variability, 25, 27
in food composition tables, 25
from misuse of RDAs, 49
sampling, 25
systematic, 27
see also Misclassification
Erythremic myelosis, 339
ESADDI, see Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes
Eskimos
North Alaskan, 264
Esophageal cancer
alcohol intake and, 10, 437-441, 594, 660
bracken fern and, 489
cigarette smoking and, 437-438, 576, 594
country differences in incidence, 118
epidemiologic studies, 594
folacin and, 338
iron and, 368
N-nitroso compounds and, 475, 594, 602
protective dietary components for, 8, 9, 313, 331-332, 341, 377, 594, 657
racial, ethnic, and migrant differences in, 118
riboflavin and, 334, 335, 341, 371, 594, 602
mortality rates, 118
trace elements and, 334-337, 371, 377, 386, 442, 594, 602
U.S. incidence rates, 118
vitamin A and, 313, 315, 331-332, 334, 371, 594, 658
vitamin C and, 331-332, 341, 357, 594
Essential amino acids
animal studies of, 33
blocked catabolic pathway of, 86
dietary sources of, 15, 62, 259, 672
see also Protein; and specific amino acids
Essential element, survey of intakes of, 43;
see also Trace elements; and specific elements
Essential fatty acids
deficiencies in, 220
defined, 159
see also Lineolic acid
Essential nutrients
cholesterol as, 225-226
choline, 216
see also other specific nutrients
Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes (ESADDI)
biotin, 48
potassium, 73
sodium, 72
use in national surveys, 48
vitamin K, 312
Estrogen
osteoporosis and, 354, 317-318, 352-353, 360, 515, 620
see also Hormonal status
Ethanol
amounts in alcoholic beverages, 432
cocarcinogenic effects of, 440
effects on DNA metabolism, 440-441
energy intake from, 436, 448, 451
hormonal status and response to, 442
local effects on cancer induction, 441
mutagenicity of, 440
neurological effects of, 434
occupational exposures to, 437, 438
see also Alcohol consumption; Alcoholic beverages
Ethnic groups, see Race and ethnicity; and specific ethnic groups
Ethnographic review of alcohol use, 433-434
Ethoxyquin, 441
Ethyl carbamate, 486
2-(Ethylnitrosoamino)ethanol, 394
Ethylnitrosourea, 393
Europe
alcohol intake in, 433-434
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 447
bone fracture in, 121
cancer incidence, in, 118, 119
dental caries in, 127
dietary recommendations in, 688
gallstones in, 126
hypertension in, 108
salt intake in, 414
see also specific countries
Event-related potentials, 93
Evolution (human), nutritional factors in, 85;
see also Genetic or familial associations
Excretion
cholesterol, 261
salt, 414
sterol, 188
uric acid, 447
urinary lignans, 299
see also Bile acids
Experimental evidence, criteria for evaluating, 5-6, 29, 652-654;
see also Animal experiments; Cell cultures; In vitro studies and methods; Mutagenicity tests; Short-term tests and studies
Exposure, duration of, in intervention studies, 32;
see also Dose-response relationships; Occupational factors and exposures
F
Familial associations of disease, see Genetic and familial associations
Familial combined hyperlipidemia, 89, 171
Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia, 168, 171, 177
Familial hypercholesterolemia
in children, 222
defined, 86
genetic transmission of, 88, 171
homozygous, 222
serum cholesterol levels and, 103
treatment of, 217
Page 727
Fat. see Body fat distribution; Body fat/fatness; Body mass index; Body weight
Fat substitute, 479
Fat-soluble vitamins
evidence of association with chronic disease, 313-322
sources of, 159
see also Vitamin A Vitamin D; Vitamin E; Vitamin K
Fats (dietary)
animal studies of, 7, 189, 213-215, 221-222, 600-601
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 5-7, 33, 161-162, 163-178, 192-196, 227-228, 275, 655-656, 666
availability trends, 53, 57, 80, 140. 160, 654
biologic contributions of, 159
body weight and, 7, 14, 144, 202, 222, 656, 671
breast cancer and, 7, 30, 31, 77, 207-208, 215, 263, 656, 671
cancer and, 5, 7, 13, 54, 77, 153, 205-210, 215, 228-229, 600-601, 666, 668, 670, 671, 673, 693
CHD and, 5, 7, 31, 33, 54, 77, 80, 93, 102, 161, 278, 656, 668, 673
cholesterol intake from, 58, 222-223
clinical/metabolic studies of, 182-189, 211-213, 221
colorectal cancer and, 7, 77, 205, 206, 208-209, 215, 303, 357, 656, 671
defined, 159
eicosanoid metabolism and, 190-192
energy expenditure in storage as triglycerides, 140, 221
energy intake from, 14, 139-140, 671
epidemiologic evidence on, 7, 178-181, 192-194, 206-210, 220-221
food composition data on, 27-28, 47-48
food sources of, 16, 18, 41, 55-58, 76, 160, 672
in foods eaten out, 76
gallbladder disease and, 7, 127, 217-220, 229, 300, 656
glucose tolerance and, 274
hemostasis and, 190-192
hydrogenation of, 57
hypertension and, 201-205
intake by children, health effects of, 14, 204, 222-227, 685
lipoprotein levels from, 178-192
liver disease and, 448
malabsorption of, 451
in meats from wild game, 41
mechanism of action of, 214
mineral contribution of, 74
monitoring status, 81
noncholesterol-containing, 128
obesity and, 7, 13, 14, 54, 144, 220-222, 229, 655, 656, 670, 671
plasma lipid and liproprotein levels from, 178-192
population differences in, 192
prostate cancer and, 7, 209, 656, 671
recommended levels of, 13, 14, 17-18, 81, 226, 669, 670-672, 675, 677-679, 682-683, 685, 686-688, 692-693
serum cholesterol levels and, 7, 178-192, 228, 656
serum triglycerides and, 148, 448
stroke and, 202
trends in, 15, 41, 54-55, 57, 81, 142, 160-161, 180, 208
see also Dietary cholesterol; Lipids and lipoproteins; and specific fats
Fatty acids
availability trends, 54, 57-58, 80, 160
biologic marker of intake of, 28
biologic roles of, 159
cardiovascular disease and, 192-196, 227
cyclopropenoid, 490
epidemiologic evidence on effects of, 192-194
food sources of, 57-58, 159, 160
intake trends, 58
cis isomers, 8, 57, 159-160, 657
trans isomers, 8, 57-58, 160, 193, 196, 213, 657
metabolism, 331
structure of, 159
transport of, 162
see also Essential fatty acids; Lineolic acid; Oleic acid; Monounsaturated fatty acids; Polyunsaturated fatty acids; Saturated fatty acids; Unsaturated fatty acids
Fava beans, 490
FD&C Blue No. 2, 478
FD&C Yellow No. 5, 478-479
Federal Republic of Germany
CHD in, 100-101
dietary recommendations in, 683, 686
hypertension in, 442
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, 57, 291, 368
Feed additives, for dairy cows, 74
Fetal alcohol syndrome, 10, 449-450, 660
Fiber
alcohol intake and, 450
adverse effects of, 301-303, 652
analysis of, 292-293
animal studies of, 295, 297-298, 299-300
atherosclerosis and, 295-296, 672
calcium balance and, 354-355
cancer and, 6, 9, 77, 80, 207, 208, 210, 212, 263, 296-299, 357, 488, 666;
see also specific sites
categories of, 291-292
clinical and metabolic studies of, 295, 299, 300, 618-619
diabetes mellitus and, 9, 299-300
edible, 291
epidemiologic studies of, 294-295, 296-297, 298-299, 300, 618-619
food composition data on, 28. 47-48, 62, 293
food sources of, 15, 62, 261, 278, 292-293, 295
insoluble fraction, 9, 622-78, 292, 293, 299, 658
intake trends, 41, 80, 81, 293-294
ischemic heart disease and, 295
lipid metabolism and, 77, 294-295
mechanisms of action, 296
methodological problems in assessing disease relationships, 294
mineral bioavailability and, 301, 354-355, 652, 666
osteoporosis and, 354-355, 618-619
physiological effects of, 292
properties of, 292
protective effects of, 9, 15, 208, 263, 294-296, 298, 331, 658, 666, 672
recommended intake of, 677, 683, 686-688, 696
research needs on, 81, 303, 360, 622, 630
serum cholesterol and, 295-296
soluble fraction, 9, 62, 278, 292, 293, 295, 298, 302, 658
supplements, 15, 17, 295, 302, 672, 674
trace element absorption and, 6, 368, 370
see also specific fibers
Fiddlehead greens, 489
Figs, 489
Filipino betel nut chewers, 514
Finland
alcohol-related diseases in, 438
cancer in, 212, 296, 298, 315, 319, 357, 377, 438
CHD in, 100-101, 164, 376, 386, 445
dental caries in, 127
dietary recommendations in, 686-687
hypertension in, 202, 394, 442
osteoporosis in, 352
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
Fish
CHD and, 8, 13-14, 191, 192, 657, 671
contaminants in, 479
dried, 421
in frozen and canned entrees and dinners, 72
nutrients supplied by, 13, 62, 64, 65, 67, 73, 671
recommended intake of, 13-14, 15, 670, 672, 675, 678, 681
see also Meat, poultry, and fish group; Seafood
Fish liver oils, 64
Fish oils, 8, 64, 159, 185, 191, 192, 205, 206, 213, 214, 227-228, 229, 518, 671;
see also w-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Fish protein, 262
Flavonoid glycosides, 488
Flavor, 159
Page 728
Flour, 62, 65, 66, 70, 74-76, 92, 192, 282, 299, 348, 368, 413, 489, 654
Fluoranthrene, 441
2-Fluorenylacetamide, 477
Fluoride
bioavailability of, 373
biologic role of, 373
blood pressure and, 375
cancer and, 374-375
cardiac function and, 375
dental caries and, 11, 17, 74, 94, 128, 280, 373-374, 387, 395, 640-641, 661, 668, 674
in drinking water, 11, 17, 74, 373, 374, 395, 661, 668, 678-679
epidemiologic studies of, 373-374, 375, 619
ESADDI, 48
hypertension and, 375
interactions with other dietary constituents, 373, 375
mutagenicity of, 374
osteoporosis and, 373, 375, 619
recommended intake of, 17, 674, 678-679
safety index for, 518
short-term tests of, 374-375
N-(4'-Fluoro-4-biphenyl)acetamide, 394
5-Fluorouracil, 321
Foam cells, 176-177
Folacin
alcoholism and, 450
analytical methods for, 67
animal studies of, 338
availability trends, 67
bioavailability, 67
biologic role of, 331
data sources on availability of, 47-48, 51
human studies of, 338-339
liver disease and, 338-339
populations at risk of deficiencies in, 67, 331
processing losses, 67
safety index, 518
supplements, 338
Folate, see Folacin
Folic acid, see Folacin
Food additives
avoidance of, through dietary practices, 76, 678, 688
cancer from, 12
nutrients provided by, 70
sodium in, 73
see also Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act; and specific food additives
Food and Drug Administration
fortification and enrichment standards, 74
guidelines for fortification of foods, 74-75
Market basket surveys, 388, 482
opinion surveys on health and diet, 80
regulation of nonnutritive dietary components, 465-466
survey of diet supplement use, 510
see also Total Diet Study
Food and Nutrition Board general health maintenance recommendations, 476
Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation, 49, 50-51
see also National Research Council
Food choices
genetic basis for, 85
implications of dietary recommendations for, 674-675
Food colors, 478-479
Food composition data
accuracy of, 23, 25, 27-28, 48
availability of, 81
limitations of, 27-28, 46-48, 293, 652
nutrients and other food constituents reported by, 47, 62
preparation/processing losses or modifications and, 46
see also specific foods and nutrients
Food constituents
factors affecting, 48
reported by national studies, 47
see also specific foods and nutrients
Food disappearance data
in cancer mortality studies, 210, 388
energy availability from, 140
estimation of, 23-24
in USDA food supply surveys, 42, 53, 80, 140, 160
Food, Drug. and Cosmetic Act
Color Additive Amendment, 466
Food Additive Amendment (Delaney Clause), 465-466
Miller Pesticide Amendment, 465
Food energy
absorption differences, 139
monitoring status, 81
RDA, 148
sources of, 18, 53-55, 139, 159
standard energy output equations of, 28
standards for, 52
storage of excess, 139
uses in the body, 139
see also Calories; and Energy topics
Food groups, defined, 55;
see also specific food groups
Food Label and Package Survey, 43
Food manufacturers, response to consumer demands, 80
Food Marketing Institute, 43
Food models, 46
Food packaging, contamination of foods through, 43, 476, 479-481, 662
Food preparation and processing browning products, 291
innovations in. and food supply trends, 42
mutagens and carcinogens produced during cooking, 18, 485-486
nutrients inadvertently added during, 25, 381, 387
nutrient losses during, 18, 70, 329, 348, 413
recommendations on, 688
salt added during, 414
sugar added during, 273
Food safety laws, 465-466, 476, 519
Food supply
eating patterns and, 75-76
estimates of nutrient availability, 654
historical changes in, 41, 80-81
trends in food availability, 57, 63-74, 654-655
see also Historical food supply; and specific dietary components and foods
Food use trends, estimation of, 24
Foods
see also Carcinogens; Contaminants, environmental; Food additives: Nonnutrients; Nutrients; and specific foods and food groups
Formulated meal replacements, 75
Fortification and enrichment of foods
with B vitamins, 74
defined, 74
FDA guidelines for, 74-75
flour and grain products, 70, 74, 75, 368
fruit drinks, 67
margarine, 74
nutritional status and, 75
public policy issues in, 94
purpose of, 75
standards for, 74
with vitamin C, 67, 75, 329, 654
Fowler's solution, 392
Framingham Offspring Study, 442
Framingham studies
blood pressure data from, 109-110, 113
body fat distributions in, 578
cancer and serum cholesterol, 689, 692
CHD predictors in, 162, 166, 167, 170-171, 175, 279, 444, 445
congestive heart failure in, 113
coronary atherosclerosis in, 166
design of, 32
gallbladder disease incidence in, 127
hypertension risk factors in, 113, 442
intermittent claudication in, 175, 446
obesity and cancer in, 575
PAD findings in, 106, 107, 113, 170
representativeness of data from, 692-693
serum cholesterol levels in, 163, 165-167, 175
sex differences in disease incidence in, 166
stroke incidence in, 104, 105, 113, 175, 442-443
triglyceride levels in, 170-171
weight of evidence from, 653
France
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alcohol intake in, 433, 437, 438
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125, 126
cancer in, 118, 207, 208, 297, 332, 356, 392, 437-439
dietary recommendations in, 682
fetal alcohol syndrome in, 449
hyperlipidemia in, 443
hypertension in, 442
Frankfurters, 72
French fries, 56
Friedreich's ataxia, 217
Frostings, 58
Frozen entrees and dinners, 72
Fructose, 59, 60, 273, 274, 277-280, 282, 283;
see also High-fructose corn syrups
Fruits
dried, 76
fresh, 57
intake trends, 54, 76, 81, 260
nutrient contribution of, 15, 18, 48, 60, 62, 64, 66, 70, 72-74, 260, 273, 295, 301, 311, 331, 332, 341
processed, 57
protective effects of, 8, 15, 341, 488
recommended intake of, 13-15, 18, 226, 670-672, 675, 679, 688
yellow, 64
see also Citrus fruits; and specific fruits
Furocoumarins, 489
Furosemide, 419
G
Galactomannans, 300
Gallbladder disease
age and, 127
animal studies of, 219-220
body fat distribution and, 16, 673
body mass index and, 117
body weight and, 10, 16, 575, 659, 673
caloric intake and, 219
clinical and metabolic studies of, 218-219, 575
dietary cholesterol and, 218
epidemiologic studies of, 575
in migrants, 126
mortality rates, 117
obesity and, 7, 117, 127, 229, 575, 656, 659
pathophysiology of, 217-218
population differences in frequency of, 126
pregnancy and, 127
PUFAs and, 218-219
sex differences and, 127
subclinical detection of, 30
time trends in morbidity and mortality, 126-127
Gallstones
age and, 218
body weight and, 575
caloric intake and, 127
see also Gallbladder disease
clinical studies on, 301
diagnosis of, 126
epidemiologic evidence on, 300-301
fiber and, 9, 127, 300-301, 302, 658
formation of, 125, 217-218, 634
genetic factors in, 635
pigment, 218
population differences in, 218, 219, 300-301, 634
pregnancy and, 218
radiopacity, 125
see also Cholelithiasis
Gambia, The osteoporosis in, 352, 617
Gangrene, 531
Gardner's syndrome, 118
Gas chromatographic analysis, of foods, 58
Gastric cancer, see Stomach cancer
Gastric intrinsic factor, absence of, 88
Gastrointestinal diseases
lactose malabsorption and, 88, 91-92, 284
vitamin K malabsorption and, 321
Gastrointestinal tract cancer
dietary cholesterol and, 214
and dietary intake assessment, 27
lead and, 393
protective dietary components for, 215
trace elements and, 377, 378, 380-382
vitamin A and, 315
vitamin E and, 318-319
Gene pools, 87
Gene product variation, and nutrition, 85-86
Genetic or familial associations
atherosclerosis, 668
breast cancer, 119-120
CHD, 86, 88-89, 93, 103, 168, 171, 536
cirrhosis of the liver, 634
colorectal cancer, 118
diabetes mellitus, 123
energy expenditures, 142
environmental interactions with, 87, 88, 90;
see also Ecogenetics
heterozygosity, 86-87
homozygosity, 86
hyperlipidemia, 86, 88-89, 93, 94, 168, 668
hypertension, 16, 112, 415, 416-418, 420, 424, 554, 660, 668, 674
obesity and overweight, 116-117, 568-569, 659
ovarian cancer, 120
of plasma lipids and lipoproteins in children, 224
policy implications of, 93-94
race/ethnicity and, 88
research needs on, 95
resting metabolic rate, 153
stroke, 105
sucrose intolerance, 284
twin studies, 87, 89, 90, 92, 116-117
see also Metabolic disorders; and specific diseases
Genetic markers
alcoholism, 93
CHD, 89
hyperlipidemia, 89
linkage analysis of, 87
Genetics
medical, research methods in, 87-88
nutrition and, 85-95
osteoporosis and, 69
reverse, 87
see also Ecogenetics; Genetic or familial associations; Pharmacogenetics
Geographical differences
CHD frequency and death rates, 100-101
cholesterol intake, 58
dietary fat and cancer, 209
fiber intake, 62
mineral intakes, 69-70
vitamin intakes, 64-68
see also Population differences; and specific countries and U.S. states
Glucose
alcohol intake and formation of, 446
behavioral change and, 283
cariogenicity of, 280
obesity and, 282
triglyceride levels and, 278
Glucose-galactose malabsorption, 86
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, 88
Glucose tolerance
age and, 122
alcohol intake and, 446
body weight and, 148
carbohydrate intake and, 9, 274-277, 284, 385, 657, 658
diabetes and, 106, 122, 277, 284
energy intake and, 149
fat intake and, 274
intermittent claudication and, 107
obesity and, 277
physical activity and, 146, 151, 152, 153
protein intake and, 274
trace element intake and, 381-383, 385-386, 515
Glutamic-6-pyruvate transaminase, 120
Glutathione peroxidase, 375-376
Glycoalkaloids, 489
see also Starches
Gossypol, 490
see also Arthritis
Grains and grain products
contamination of, 665
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intake trends, 54, 80, 63-66, 69-71, 348, 654
nutrients provided by, 56, 58, 59-60, 63-66, 69-71, 74, 75, 161, 273, 330, 331, 348, 349, 413
protective effects of, 295, 299
see also Cereal grains and cereal grain products; Whole grains and whole-grain products; and specific grains
Grapefruit, 73
Grape juice, 433
Grapes, 392
GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) substances, 466
Greece and Greek Islands
cancer in, 207, 208, 297, 467, 468
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
Green peppers, 329
Groundnut oil, 202
Growth
coffee and, 470
energy balance during periods of, 147
Growth disorders
choline deficiency and, 216
in diabetics, 372
monitoring of children for, 44
Guanine, 441
Guanosine 5'-diphosphate, 146
Guar gum, 295, 298, 299, 301, 302
see also specific gums
H
Hamburgers, 56
Hawaii
cancer in, 119, 207, 209, 212, 313, 332, 384, 438, 467
dental caries in, 128
diabetes mellitus in, 123, 149, 276
gallbladder disease and gallstones in, 126
hypertension in, 355
obesity and overweight in, 114-115, 149
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
HDL, see High-density lipoproteins
HDL cholesterol
alcohol intake and, 443
atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and, 117
at birth, 224
CHD risk and, 151, 166-168, 169, 177-178, 224, 376
cholesterol intake and, 199-200, 223
food sources of, 187
individual differences in, 166-168
lecithin and, 217
obesity and, 146
population differences in, 166, 177-178
PUFAs and, 8, 188, 189, 227, 657
serum cholesterol and, 181, 185, 198
SFAs and, 189
stroke and, 175
trace elements and, 370, 382, 383, 515
triglyceride levels and, 170
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 45;
see also National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
Health foods, 76
Health professionals, dietary supplement use by, 512-513
Health promotion, defined, 99
Heart diseases, see Cardiovascular diseases; Coronary heart disease
Heart rate, energy expenditure and, 141;
see also Cardiac function
Heat exhaustion, 414
Height
of vegetarians, 77
Hemochromatosis, 88, 92, 94, 95, 124, 368, 668
Hematopoietic cancers, 393
Hemoglobin
intermittent claudication and, 107
as iron nutritional status indicator, 50
obesity and, 579
Hemostasis
atherosclerosis and, 190
fish oils and, 185-186
Hepatic cancer, see Liver cancer
Hepatitis
aflatoxins and, 487
liver cancer and, 438-439, 441, 487
viral, 119, 124, 339, 438-439, 441, 487
Hepatobiliary disease, 124-125, 676;
see also Alcoholic cirrhosis; Cirrhosis of the liver; Gallbladder disease; Gallstones; Liver disease
Hepatorenal syndrome, 447;
see also Liver disease; Renal disease
Heterocyclic amines, 485-486
Heterozygosity
in familial hypercholesterolemia, 86
in hemochromatosis, 92
possible effects of, in metabolic disorders, 86-87, 94, 95
High blood pressure, see Blood pressure; Hypertension
High-density lipoproteins (HDL)
carbohydrates and, 278-279
composition of, 163
physical exercise and, 146, 443
PUFA effects on, 188
triglyceride levels and, 170
see also HDL cholesterol
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 58, 59, 273, 274, 654
Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, dental caries, data from, 128
Hispanics
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
cancer incidence among, 119
dental caries in, 128
diabetes mellitus in, 123
gallstones in, 126
Historical food supply (USDA)
data gathering for, 42
nutrients and food constituents reported in, 47, 273-274, 347-348
nutritive value calculations, 42
per-capita use estimation, 42
uses of data from, 44
HLA, see Tissue histocompatability antigen
Hodgkin's disease, 337, 377, 483
Homeostasis, dietary fat intake and, 8, 190-192
Honey, 76
Hong Kong, cancer in, 212
Hopi Indians, 435
Hormonal status
breast cancer risk and, 117, 153, 207, 210, 214, 384
CHD and, 102
endometrial cancer and, 120
energy expenditure and, 142, 153
osteoporosis and, 69, 264, 316-318, 350, 354, 620
and responses to ethanol intake, 442
serum lipid and lipoprotein levels and, 185, 224
stroke and, 104
Hot dogs, 56
Human studies
animal studies compared to, 35-36
atherosclerosis, 333
biotin, 340
cancer, 334-340
evaluation of evidence from, 652-653
folacin, 338-339
hyperlipidemia, 533
liver disease, 334-336, 337-340
niacin, 336
pantothenic acid, 340
problems in weighting of, 4, 35
PUFA effects on HDL levels, 188
riboflavin, 334-335
sodium sensitivity, 420
stomach cancer, 420-421
thiamin, 334
vitamin B6, 337-338
vitamin B12, 339-340
see also Case-control studies; Clinical studies and trials; Community trials; Cross-sectional studies; Dietary data; Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts; Intervention studies; Longitudinal (cohort) studies; Observational studies
Hungary, CHD in, 100-101
Hycanthone, 477
Hydrazines in mushrooms, 12, 487, 662
Hydrogenation of oils
atherosclerosis and, 195-196
CHD and, 193
essential fatty acid content, 187
trans fatty acid formation during, 57, 160, 186
product labeling for, 58
purpose, 186
Page 731
25-Hydroxycholesterol, 201
5-Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid, 190
5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, 190
1-Hydroxymethyl-1, 2-dehydropyrrolizine, 488-489
Hypercalciuria, 355
Hypercarotenemia, 314
Hypercholesterolemia
animal studies of, 33, 161, 171, 189, 201, 228
atherosclerosis and, 176
carbohydrates and, 275
cholesterol intake and, 176, 189, 197, 201, 228
complications of, 176
cross-sectional studies of, 181
genetic disorders of lipoprotein metabolism, 171
hydrogenated vegetable oils and, 296
liver cholesterol content in, 188
serum cholesterol and, 195, 197, 217, 260
sterol excretion and, 188
trace elements and, 380
treatment of, 217
see also Familial hypercholesterolemia
Hyperglycemia, 149-150, 275-277, 299-300, 382, 383, 446
Hyperkeratosis, 335
Hyperlipidemia
alcohol intake and, 443-444
animal studies of, 295-296
carbohydrates and, 277
clinical and metabolic studies of, 295, 533
dietary cholesterol and, 200
epidemiologic studies of, 294-295
fiber intake and, 294-296
genetic and familial factors in, 86, 88-89, 93, 94, 168, 668
postprandial, 443
triglyceride levels and, 171, 443
see also Familial combined hyperlipidemia
Hyperlipoproteinemia, biologic markers for, 170
Hyperparathyroidism, 354, 355, 358, 360
Hyperphagia, 145, 221-222, 276
Hyperactivity, carbohydrates and, 283
Hypertension
age and, 108, 109-111, 202, 660
alcohol intake and, 10, 16, 108, 415, 420, 442-443, 552, 660, 673, 681
angiotensin-salt, 418
animal studies of, 33, 204-205, 262, 340, 356, 359, 375, 390, 394, 417-418, 553
atherosclerosis and, 176
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 107, 112-113, 415, 549
blood pressure levels, 107, 415
body fat distribution and, 16, 144, 659
body weight and, 10, 16, 108, 112. 420, 550, 659, 673
borderline, 107, 415, 417, 549
cadmium and, 389-390, 515, 552, 553
calcium and, 17, 355-356, 360, 553, 685
cerebral hemorrhage and, 194
chloride and, 423-424
choline deficiency and, 216, 217
clinical studies of, 10-11, 262, 300, 355-356, 394, 417
complications of, 107
country differences in prevalence of, 104, 108
defined, 107, 414-415, 549-550
detection and control of, 29, 108, 109
diabetes mellitus and, 124
diagnosis of, 107
energy intake and, 149
environmental factors in, 88, 89, 111-112, 554
epidemiologic evidence on, 109, 261-262, 300, 355, 358-359, 389-390, 394, 415-417, 422-423
fat/lipid intake and, 201-205
fiber and, 9, 300, 302, 552, 658
genetic and familial factors in, 11, 16, 88, 89, 94, 95, 112, 415, 416-418, 420, 424, 554, 660, 668, 674, 681
glomerular capillary, 265
human studies of, 201-204, 340, 550-552
incidence measures, 29
intermittent claudication and, 107
kidney disease and, 107, 418, 422
mechanisms for development of, 262, 418-420
obesity and, 108, 117, 149, 415, 420, 550, 572-573, 659, 676
occupational factors in, 112
pantothenic acid and, 340, 552, 553
pediatric antecedents to, 555
physical activity and, 108, 112, 555, 673
population-attributable fraction of cases, 109
population differences in, 108, 414
potassium and, 202, 415, 416, 418-419, 422-423, 424, 551, 553-555, 685
psychosocial factors in, 112, 420, 554-555
public information programs on, 77
PUFAs and, 552
racial, ethnic, and migrant differences in, 11, 89, 95, 105, 111-112, 149, 394, 419, 420, 554-555, 660
risk factors for, 108, 109-112
salt/sodium and, 10-11, 16-17, 33, 77, 80, 89, 95, 108, 112, 202, 204-205, 414-420, 423, 551, 553-555, 660, 668, 674, 681, 685
serum cholesterol and, 18, 194, 693-694
severe, 107
sex differentials in, 110-111, 442
SFAs and, 552
socioeconomic status and, 112, 555
stroke and, 104, 105, 107, 113, 415, 539-540, 693-694
time trends in frequency and mortality, 108-109
trace elements and, 370, 375, 390, 552, 553
vegetable intake and, 203
see also Blood pressure
Hypertensive heart disease, 107
Hyperuricemia, 447
Hypertriglyceridemia
borderline, 170
carbohydrates and, 274, 276, 278
fish oils and, 185
low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets and, 185, 275-276
pancreatitis and, 170
peripheral vascular diseases and, 175
PUFAs and, 218
sterol excretion, 188
Hypoglycemia, 283, 284, 446-447, 448
Hypolipidemia, 443
Hypomagnesemia, 358
Hypothrombinemia, 321
Hypothyroidism, 384
I
IDDM, see Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Ileitis, 321
Illinois, CHD mortality rates, 102
Imaging techniques, 144
Immune system responses
alcohol intake and, 441
obesity and, 579-580
PUFA effects on, 215
and somatic mutations in, 85
trace elements and, 372, 389, 395
vitamin B6 and, 441
vitamin E and, 320
In vitro studies and methods of atherogenesis, 176-177
avian myeloblastosis virus, 389
b-carotene and other carotenoids, 314
cholesterol esterification, 169
cholesterol measurement, 188
for eicosanoid metabolism, 191
fluoride and dental caries, 374
foam cell formation, 177
N-nitroso compounds, 476
nonnutritive sweeteners, 473
retinol and other retinoids, 316
see also Cell cultures; Mutagenicity tests: Organ cultures; Short-term studies and studies
Incidence of disease
cardiovascular disease, 113
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CHD, 100-101, 102, 113, 164-165
colorectal cancer, 118-119
endometrial cancer, 120
esophageal cancer, 118
hemochromatosis, 92
inborn errors of metabolism, 86
NIDDM, 122-123
ovarian cancer, 120
pancreatic cancer, 119
problems in assessment of, 29-30
prostate cancer, 120
stomach cancer, 118
stroke, 104
see also Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts: Population differences; and specific groups
India
alcohol intake in, 435
hypertension in, 416
nutrient deficiency diseases in, 316, 381
Indonesia
CHD in, 161
vitamin A deficiency in, 316
Industrial chemicals
cleaners and disinfectants, 74
survey of exposures to, 43
see also specific chemicals
Infants and children
alcohol consumption and health effects in, 442
arterial lesions in, 222, 223-224
atherosclerosis in, 222
behavioral and learning deficits, 283, 395
caffeine intake by, 466
caloric intake trends for, 53, 76
cancer in, 117-118
cardiovascular diseases in, 222
CHD in, 222
dental caries in, 17, 127-128, 279, 685
dietary cholesterol as an essential nutrient, 225-226
dietary intakes by, 224
eating patterns of, 75-76, 685, 690
familial hypercholesterolemia in, 222
fat intake by, 14, 55, 161, 204, 222-227
hypertension antecedents in, 555
lead exposure, chronic effects in, 393, 395
mineral intake trends, 69-74
observational studies of, 225, 226
plasma cholesterol in infants, 222-223
plasma lipids and lipoproteins in, 223-224
recommended dietary modifications for, 4, 226-227, 671, 678, 684-685, 690
safety of fat-modified diets for, 225-226
salt/sodium intake by, 416, 417
serum cholesterol in children, 164, 685
serum lipids and lipoproteins in, 225
sugar intake by, 59
supplement use by, 511-512
tracking of, 224-225
vitamin D deficiency in, 302, 327
vitamin E deficiency in, 320
vitamin intake trends, 64-68
see also Pediatric population
Infections, 124
Inositol, 217
Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
animal studies of, 277-278
caloric intake and, 149, 277-278
carbohydrates and, 277-278
cause, 122
clinical studies of, 277
complications of, 124
sex differences in, 123
trace elements and, 386
see also Diabetes mellitus; Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Insulin metabolism
alcohol intake and, 446
body weight and, 148, 150, 152
carbohydrate intake and, 9, 149, 275, 277, 284, 657, 658
energy expenditure and, 142, 143
energy intake and, 150
fiber intake and, 292, 299, 302
food intake and, 148, 149, 276
physical exercise and, 146, 151, 152
trace element intake and, 382, 383, 386
Inter-Society Commission for Heart Disease Resources, 676, 684, 687
Intermittent claudication
alcohol intake and, 446
angina pectoris and, 107
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 107, 320
blood sugar and, 106
body weight and, 107
cerebrovascular disease and, 107
characteristics of, 105
cigarette smoking and, 106, 107
congestive heart failure and, 107
diabetes and, 106
glucose tolerance and, 107
hemoglobin and, 107
hypertension and, 107
physical activity and, 107
relative risk of, 107
risk factors for, 106-107
serum cholesterol and, 107, 175
sex differentials in, 106, 107
systolic blood pressure and, 107
urinary sugar and, 106
vitamin E and, 320
International Classification of Disease
angina pectoris, 100
cancer, 117-120
myocardial infarction, 100
International Coffee Organization, 406
Intervention studies and trials
b-carotene, 314
Cholesterol Lowering Atherosclerosis Study, 167
Coronary Drug Project, 167
Finnish Mental Hospital Study, 172-174, 195
Göteborg Multifactor Trial, 172-174, 195
Helsinki Heart Study, 167, 172-173
hypertension, 203
Hypertension Detection and Follow-Up Program, 111, 210, 318, 420
large-scale, 195
Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial, 167, 172-173, 183, 185, 197, 198, 224
Los Angeles Veterans Administration Domiciliary Study, 172-174, 194-195
Malmo Prevention Program, 210
Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT), 165, 166-167, 173-174, 176, 194, 195, 211, 693-694
Oslo Study, 166, 167, 173-174, 195
problems common to, 4, 32-33, 37
weight of evidence from, 653
World Health Organization Clofibrate Trial, 173-174, 692
World Health Organization Multifactor Trial, 172-174, 195
see also Clinical studies and trials; Community trials
Intestinal cancer, see Colon cancer; Colorectal cancer; Gastrointestinal tract cancer; Rectal cancer
Intracerebral hemmorhage, 103, 104
Iodine
animal studies of, 384
availability in food supply, 43, 47
bioavailability of, 74
biologic role of, 383
cancer and, 383-384
endemic goiter and, 384-385, 395
epidemiologic studies of, 383-385
intake trends, 74
RDA, 48
safety index for, 518
supplements, 384
Iodophors, 74
Iran
hypertension in, 416
Ireland
dietary recommendations in, 681, 683
obesity and overweight in, 115
plasma lipids/lipoproteins and fat intake in, 181
Iron
absorption of, 71, 77, 88, 92, 94, 301, 302, 368, 370;
see also Hemochromatosis
alcoholism and, 450
animal studies of, 368-369, 370
availability trends, 53, 70, 75, 368
biologic role of, 367
cancer and, 368-369
CHD and, 369
clinical studies of, 368
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from cooking utensils, 25
data sources on availability of, 47-48, 51, 81
enrichment of foods with, 70, 74, 75, 92, 668
epidemiologic studies of, 368, 369-370
food sources of, 70-71, 74, 77, 360
interaction with other trace elements, 379
iron-deficiency anemia and, 369-370, 668
recommended intake of, 681, 696
safety index, 518
short-term tests of, 369
vitamin C and, 71, 77, 367, 368, 370
Iron-deficiency anemia, 77, 88, 369-370, 395
Iroquois Indians, 435
Ischemic heart disease, 197, 295, 359, 469, 690
Isoleucine, 259
Isoniazid, 88
Isosafrole, 488
Isothiocyanates, 667
Israel
cancer in, 207, 297, 298-299, 313, 468, 469
diabetes mellitus in, 122, 123
serum cholesterol in, 469
Italy
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
cancer in, 118, 207, 313, 468, 480
hypertension in, 442
plasma lipid/lipoproteins and fat intake levels in, 179-180
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
J
Jamaica, osteoporosis in, 352
Japan
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
cancer in, 118, 212, 263, 313, 389, 392, 421, 438, 467, 475, 488, 489
CHD in, 100-101, 102, 104, 164, 445
dietary recommendations in, 683, 687-688
diabetes mellitus in, 123, 149, 276
diverticulosis in, 300
gallbladder disease and gallstones in, 126, 127, 218, 300
hyperlipidemia in, 443
hypertension in, 104, 108, 340, 389
Minamata disease in, 391
neurological disorders in, 387
obesity and overweight in, 114-115, 149
osteoporosis in, 352
plasma lipid/lipoproteins and fat intake levels in, 180
serum cholesterol levels in, 163, 166
Joint Nutrition Monitoring Evaluation Committee, 44, 62, 64-68, 81, 107, 329, 331, 667
K
Kaempferol glycosides, 469, 488
Kentucky, CHD in, 102
Keshan disease, 376
Ketoacidosis, 124
Kidney disease, see Renal disease
Know Your Body Program, 225
Korea, hypertension in, 108, 416
Kahweal palmitate, 467
L
Laboratory animals
ACI rats, 489
action of dietary fat in, 214-215
African green monkeys, 220
albino iron-deficient rats, 369, 370
albino mice, 380
baboons, 188, 189, 196, 200, 216, 220, 223, 227, 261, 335, 337, 441, 448, 449, 532
Balb/c mice, 333, 368-369, 372, 477, 485
CD/I mice, 470
CF/I mice, 476
Charles River mice, 473-474, 485
chickens, 200, 216, 295, 322, 418, 484
cynomolgus monkeys, 196, 200, 320, 532
Dahl rats, 204, 417, 418, 423, 424
desert sand rat, 150, 152, 276, 386
diabetic mice, 152, 277, 278, 574
dogs, 33, 152, 176, 200, 216, 219, 354, 375, 398, 392, 418, 474, 484, 486, 532
ducks, 487
Fischer 344
genetically obese rodents, 143, 146, 277
goats, 200
ground squirrels, 220
guinea pigs, 33, 200, 333, 385, 532
hamsters, 171, 187, 216, 219, 319-320, 333, 371, 440, 472, 476, 477, 481, 482, 484, 487
Holtzman albino rats, 336
horses, 390
macaques, 449
mice, 91, 150, 152, 200, 216, 219, 220, 276, 277, 282, 299-300, 314, 317, 319-321, 332, 336-338, 340, 354, 378, 387, 391, 392, 421, 439, 440, 469, 472, 473, 478, 482, 484, 487
obese, glucose-intolerant rodents, 152
obese monkeys, 152
Okamoto-Aoki spontaneously hypertensive rats, 204
Osborne-Mendel rats, 470, 471, 484
prairie dogs, 219-220
prediabetic rats, 276
primates (nonhuman), 33, 152, 159, 176, 188, 189, 196, 200, 219, 220, 223, 227, 228, 375, 382, 418, 424, 448, 532
quail, 484
rabbits, 33, 161, 171, 177, 189, 196, 200, 204, 205, 217, 219, 261, 295, 333-334, 369, 382, 388, 423, 532
rats, 33, 91, 145, 146, 149, 150, 152, 176, 196, 200, 204, 213, 216, 217, 221-222, 223, 262, 264, 265, 276, 280, 296, 298, 300, 317, 319, 335-340, 354, 359, 368, 370, 374, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382, 384, 386-392, 395, 421, 424, 436, 439-443, 447, 448, 468, 472, 473, 476, 481-484, 487, 489, 532,
rhesus monkeys, 171, 189, 196, 200, 354, 385, 449, 472, 532, 641
riboflavin-deficient mice, 441
Sherman rats, 480
Sprague-Dawley rats, 204, 205, 222, 278, 386, 387, 423, 470, 472, 474, 484
spontaneously hypertensive rat, 149, 204, 205, 262, 281, 356, 359, 418, 423, 424
spontaneously obese rodents, 145, 574
squirrel monkeys, 188, 189, 200, 220
streptozotocin-diabetic rats, 277, 278, 300
stroke-prone rats, 423
swine, 33, 90, 150, 200, 216, 223, 276, 418, 424, 532
Swiss mice, 391, 393, 394, 472, 484
vervet monkeys, 189, 196, 200, 295, 532
Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit, 171, 177
while leghorn cockerels, 389
Wistar rats, 152, 153, 222, 276, 277, 333, 359, 369, 389, 393, 468, 474, 477, 484, 574
Wistar-Kyoto rats, 204, 205, 356, 418
Wistar-Schonwalde rats, 204
Yucatan miniature swine, 150, 276
see also Animal models; Animal studies
Laboratory experiments, see Animal studies: Cell cultures; In vitro studies and methods; Mutagenicity tests; Short-term tests and studies
Lactase deficiency, 284
Lactose, 273
Lactose intolerance/malabsorption
carbohydrate intake and, 283-284
defined, 86
pathophysiology of, 91
policy implications of, 92
Laennec's cirrhosis, see Alcoholic cirrhosis
Lamb, 208
Lard and beef tallow, 57, 160, 214
Lauric acid, 13, 183, 184, 189, 227, 670
Laryngeal cancer, 10, 313, 332, 333, 437, 660
LDL. see Low-density lipoproteins
LDL cholesterol
apolipoproteins and, 168
atherosclerosis and, 171, 172, 223-224, 657
body weight and, 146
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carbohydrates and, 276, 278, 671
CHD and, 166-168, 171, 172, 178, 657
cholesterol intake and, 8, 13, 171, 199, 228, 657, 670
familial hypercholesterolemia and, 171, 217, 260
food sources of, 187
individual differences in, 166-168
intrinsic and extrinsic determinants of, 181
lecithin and, 217
lipid intake and, 181
MUFAs and, 8, 13, 184, 189, 228, 657, 671
population differences in, 166
protein and, 260
PUFAs and, 8, 182, 185, 189, 227, 657, 671
serum cholesterol and, 179, 181, 182, 183, 197, 199, 201, 227
SFAs and, 7-8, 13, 171, 183, 189, 227, 228, 656, 670
stroke and, 175
Lead
animal studies of, 393-394, 395
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 393
biologic markers of intake, 29
biologic role of, 392-393
cancer and, 393-394
chronic effects in children, 393, 395
clinical studies of, 394-395
epidemiologic studies of, 393, 394-395
permissible levels of, 393, 395
renal diseases and, 394-395
short-term tests of, 394
sources of exposure to, 393
Legumes, 8, 13-15, 18, 54, 62, 65, 66, 72, 74, 259, 260, 273, 293, 295, 370, 490, 670-672, 678;
see also Dried beans, peas, nuts, and soybeans
Leucine, 259
Leucotrienes, 214
Leukopenia, 315
Linoleic acid
in adipose tissue, 203
availability trends, 54, 55, 654
blood pressure and, 202, 204, 205
data sources on availability of, 47
food sources of, 55, 56, 184, 213-214, 223
hydrogenation of, 186
infant requirements for, 226
trans isomers of, 187
protective effects of, 208, 227-228
recommended intake of, 672
see also w-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Linseed oil, 204
Lipids and lipoproteins (dietary) atherosclerosis, 29, 169, 200
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 6, 33, 42, 161-201
availability trends, 160
apolipoproteins and, 162
characteristics of, 159, 162, 163, 200
CHD and, 86, 88-89, 93, 103, 571-572
classes of lipoproteins, 162;
see also Chylomicrons; High-density lipoproteins; Low-density lipoproteins; Very-low-density lipoproteins
clinical and metabolic studies of, 182-189
data sources on availability of, 47
dietary cholesterol and, 199-200
fiber intake and, 294
intermediate density, 168
metabolism of, 199-200, 571-572
MUFA intake and, 184
nutrition-gene interactions, 89, 93, 95
obesity and, 571-572
peripheral vascular diseases and, 175
postprandial, 200
protein intake and, 261
PUFA intake and, 184-186
research needs on, 95
SFA intake and, 182-184
stroke and, 175-176
surveys of intake, 160-161
see also Dietary cholesterol; Fats; Fatty acids; Oils; Phospholipids; Serum or plasma lipids; Serum or plasma cholesterol; Triglycerides
a-Lipoprotein cholesterol, see HDL cholesterol
b-Lipoprotein cholesterol, see LDL cholesterol
Liquor, see also Alcohol consumption; Alcoholic beverages; Alcoholism and alcohol abuse
Liver (food), 64, 65, 67, 70, 160, 311, 312, 315, 330, 381, 388
Liver cancer
aflatoxins and, 119, 596-597, 601
age and, 119
alcohol and, 10, 438-439, 440, 441, 597
animal studies of, 150
arsenic and, 392
bracken fern toxins and, 489
caloric intake and, 150
carbohydrates and, 282-283
cirrhosis of the liver and, 438-439, 597
coffee and tea and, 468-469
epidemiologic studies of, 596-597
folacin and, 338
hepatitis B infection and, 119, 438-439, 441, 596-597
incidence of, 119, 593, 596-597
PCBs and, 479-480
phospholipid deficiencies and, 216
pyrrolizidine alkaloids and, 488-489, 596
safrole and, 596
sex differences in, 119
socioeconomic status and, 119
vitamin B6 and, 337
vitamin B12 and, 339
vitamin C and, 352
Liver disease
alcohol intake and, 16, 124-125, 447-448, 660, 673;
see also Alcoholic cirrhosis
animal studies of, 335-336, 338, 340
biotin and, 340
causes of, 124
cell regeneration and, 124
fatty liver, 10, 124, 216, 340, 448-449, 660
folacin and, 338
HDL levels and, 443-444
human studies of, 321, 334-336, 337-340, 448
hypolipidemia and, 443-444
niacin and, 336
nutritional factors in, 216, 446-447
pantothenic acid and, 340
parenchymal, 321
riboflavin and, 335-336
thiamin and, 334
vitamin B12 and, 339-341
vitamin E and, 321
vitamin K and, 321
see also Cirrhosis of the liver
Locust bean gum, 291
Longitudinal (cohort) studies
calcium intake and bone mass, 352
cholelithiasis, 218
dietary cholesterol and serum cholesterol, 197
dietary intake assessment for, 27, 208, 224
energy intake and body weight, 144
H. J. Heinz Company, 224
methodology, 32
multiphasic health examination program, 439
renal disease and, 447
strengths and weaknesses of, 32, 81, 208
weight of evidence for causation, 35, 52
Los Angeles, lung cancer in, 119
Louisiana, cancer in, 475
Low-calorie diets
life-span effects of, 583
nutrient levels in, 52
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
alcohol intake and, 444
in atherosclerotic lesions, 169
carbohydrates and, 278-279
CHD and, 86, 88, 107, 168, 444
colon cancer and, 211
composition of, 163
endothelial cell injury from, 177
foam cell formation and, 176-177
hepatic receptor activity, 189
measurement of, 198
PAD and, 107
physical characteristics and properties of, 176, 187
receptor activity of, 176, 177, 187-189, 199
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receptor defects in, 86, 88-89, 171
serum cholesterol and, 185
see also LDL cholesterol; Plasma or serum lipids and lipoproteins
Low-fat diets
cancer risk and, 6
hypertension and, 203
protective effects of, 8-9
safety of, for children, 225
serum cholesterol concentrations, 32
see also Diets
Low-income populations
dietary intake and nutrition surveys of, 42, 44, 293;
see also National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
fiber intake of, 293
meat intake by, 63
see also Socioeconomic status
Lung cancer
age and, 119
b-carotene and, 9, 313, 314, 322, 488, 514, 658
cholesterol intake and, 210, 598
cigarette smoking and, 322, 576, 593, 597-598
fat intake and, 598
food additives and, 476
human studies of, 153, 211, 313, 597-598
lead and, 393
mercury and, 391
mortality rates, 119, 211, 655, 691
niacin and, 336
occupational exposures and, 381, 598-599
population differences in, 119, 598
prevention of, 19
protective dietary components for, 8, 9, 15, 313-316, 322, 377, 488, 657, 672, 598-599
racial and ethnic differences in, 119
serum cholesterol and, 211
socioeconomic status and, 119
trace elements and, 368, 377, 378, 380-381, 387, 389, 395
vitamin A and, 313, 315-316, 322, 488, 514, 598
vitamin B12 and, 339
Lupus erythematosus, 490
Lycasin, 281
Lymphoma, 318
M
Macrophages
cholesteryl ester production by, 169, 176
mouse peritoneal, 169
plasma lipoprotein interaction with, 176
Magnesium
alcoholism and, 451
animal studies of, 359
availability trends, 53, 70, 347-348
biologic role of, 347, 349, 358, 661
blood pressure and, 360
CHD and, 359
data sources on availability of, 47-48
epidemiologic studies of, 358-359
fiber and, 301
hypertension and, 358-359
hypomagnesemia and, 358
intake trends, 70, 77-79, 81, 349, 359
safety index, 518
Maize, 280
Malnutrition
blood pressure and, 261
energy intake and, 139
liver disease and, 448
see also Nutritional inadequacies and deficiencies
Malonaldehyde, 378
Maltose, 273
Manganese
Alzheimer's disease and, 386
animal studies of, 385-386
CHD and, 386
clinical studies of, 385
data sources on availability in food supply, 47
diabetes and, 385-386
epidemiologic studies of, 385
food sources of, 385
mutagenicity of, 385
nutritional status, 74
short-term tests of, 385
toxicity, 385
Mania, 217-218
Maple syrup, 273
Margarine, 55-58, 64, 74, 75, 80, 160, 186, 187, 196, 480
Market Research Corporation of America, 466
Maryland
cancer in, 313
CHD in, 102
Massachusetts
cancer in, 313
obesity and overweight in, 115
see also Framingham Study
Meat loaf, 56
Meat, poultry, and fish group
availability trends, 57
nutrient contribution of, 54, 56, 58, 63, 65-66, 70, 71, 74, 160, 260, 330, 331, 349, 368
recommended intakes of, 18, 670
Meats and meat products
atherosclerosis and, 161, 658-659
cancer and, 208, 209, 263, 264, 303, 659, 673
cholesterol intake from, 161
contaminants in, 391
creatinine excretion, 28
fat content of, 13, 16, 41, 56, 159, 161, 179, 671
fortification of, 75
in frozen and canned entrees and dinners, 72
intake trends, 76
mineral content of, 14, 70, 71, 77
processed, 76
protein intake from, 15-16, 41, 62, 259
recommended intakes of, 13, 16, 18, 670, 675, 681
soybean analogs of, 42
stroke and, 193
wild game, 41
see also Meat. poultry, and fish group; Red meats; and specific meats
Melons, 329
Memory impairment, 216
Menhadden oil, 213
Metabolic disorders
carrier heterozygotes for, 86-87, 94
nutritional management of, 86
uric acid, 447
see also specific disorders
Metabolic efficiency
ethanol intake and, 436
mechanisms for, 143
during pregnancy, 147
thermogenesis and, 152
Metabolism
of brown adipose tissue, 147
of carcinogens, 91
DNA, ethanol and, 440-441
eicosanoid, 190-192
energy balance and, 143
fatty acid, 331
food intake and, 149
genetic determinants of, 142
inborn errors of, 85-87, 93, 94, 95;
see also Metabolic disorders
lipoprotein, 185
of minerals for bone formation, 615
rate measurement, 141
retinoic acid, 451
Methionine, 216, 259, 261, 331, 338, 339, 448
Methodological considerations
accuracy, 25-26
animal studies, 4, 35, 37, 150, 200-201, 260, 278, 280, 378
in assessing dietary intake, 21, 23-28, 29, 181, 197, 198, 205, 207, 208, 264, 295, 330, 351, 378, 652
averaging across subjects in individual correlations, 31
biologic plausibility of causal association, 37
case-control studies, 31, 193, 470, 653
clinical investigations, 32-33, 174-175
combining information from separate studies, 28
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committee criteria for evaluating studies, 4-5, 28, 36-37, 652-654
comparing studies of different size, 163
confounding/confounders, 30-31, 172, 185, 186, 192, 194, 197, 204, 205, 224, 228, 274, 656
consistency of association across studies, 37
cross-sectional studies, 181, 204, 228, 415
discrepancies between ecological and individual correlations, 31
epidemiologic studies, 197
evaluating evidence, 23-38, 652-653
exposure duration, 32
fiber-disease studies, 294, 295
individual correlations, 31, 37
inferring causality, 5, 34-37, 38, 652
intercorrelation among dietary variables, 263, 656
intervention studies, 32-33, 653
laboratory experiments, 4, 33-34, 36
lipoprotein cholesterol measurement, 166, 200
longitudinal (cohort) studies, 32, 193, 653
medical genetics research, 87-88
misclassification, 21, 27, 30-32, 193, 652
responsiveness to dietary components, 199
single-study evaluations, 28-34, 652
specificity of association across studies, 37
strength-of-association assessments, 36, 38
temporal relationships, 30-32, 36-37, 577
weight studies over time, 577
see also Dietary data; Dose-response relationships; Epidemiologic evidence, studies, and cohorts
Methotrexate, 321
Methyl cellulose, 291
Methyl mercury, 390
3'-Methylaminoazobenzene, 283
MethylbenzyInitrosamine, 387, 442
Methylcholanthrene, 264, 319, 332, 333, 369, 383, 477
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl, 385
Methylene cholesterol, 201
Methylglyoxal, 467
O6-Methylguanine transferase, 440-441
Methylnitrosourea, 298, 333, 384, 387, 472, 473, 477
4-Methylpyrazole, 447
Metronidazole, 477
Metropolitan Life Insurance Tables, 114
Metropolitan Relative Weights, 114
Mexican-Americans
dental caries in, 128
gallstones in, 126
obesity in, 90
Mexico
alcohol intake in, 433
HDL cholesterol levels in, 166
peripheral vascular disease in, 391
Microsomal monoxygenase activity, 302
Migrants
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
cancer in, 118, 119, 207, 208, 212
diabetes mellitus in, 123, 149
gallbladder disease and gallstones in, 126
hypertension in, 89, 105, 111-112, 149
obesity and overweight in, 114-115, 149
physical activity in, 149
plasma lipids/lipoproteins and fat intake by, 179-181
serum cholesterol levels in, 163, 164, 178, 180, 181
strokes in, 104-105
see also Population differences
Milk and milk products
atherosclerosis and, 161
availability trends, 57, 60, 61, 69, 160
CHD and, 192
contamination of, 392, 479, 489, 665
fortification of, 64, 74, 75, 312
intake trends, 54, 56, 60, 80, 466, 564
lactose malabsorption from, 91-92
malted milk, 273
nutrient contribution of, 18, 43, 57, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 73, 74, 92, 159, 161, 223, 259, 273, 311, 330, 331, 349, 357, 370, 417, 675
powdered, 392
recommended intake of, 670, 675
skim milk, 18, 69, 160, 299, 311, 675
stroke and, 194
whole milk, 18, 56, 57, 61, 64, 80, 160, 207, 311, 654, 670, 675
see also Dairy products; Infant formulas
Milk fat, 159
Minerals, dietary fiber and bioavailability of, 301;
see also specific minerals
Minnesota
diabetes mellitus in, 123
hypertension in, 109
PAD in, 106
Misclassification
in case-control studies, 31, 193
of disease severity, 193
in longitudinal (cohort) studies, 32, 193
in observational studies, effects, 30, 31, 32
of respondents in dietary recall methods, 27
systematic, 30
Mississippi, CHD in, 102
Mitomycin E, 333
Mitrifonate, 477
Molasses, 273
Molybdenum
animal studies of, 386-397
biologic role of, 386
dental caries and, 387
epidemiologic studies of, 386
excess intakes of, 386
interaction with other trace elements, 386
supplementation, 386
Monitoring priorities, 62, 63;
see also specific dietary components
Monosaccharides, 58, 208, 273, 282;
see also Fructose; Glucose
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
blood pressure and, 204
CHD and, 54
clinical and metabolic studies of, 8, 184
data sources on availability of, 47
food sources of, 13, 213, 223, 671
lipoprotein levels and, 184, 657, 671
protective effects of, 204, 671, 694-695
serum or plasma cholesterol and, 8, 13, 178, 184, 189, 228, 657
structure of, 159
see also Oleic acid
Mormons
cancer in, 437
reproductive effects of coffee in, 470
Mortality rates
alcoholic cirrhosis, 125-126, 435, 447
cancer, 6, 118-120, 173-174, 194, 439, 655
CHD, 6, 100-102, 151, 164-165, 173, 197, 445, 655, 690, 691
clofibrate treatment and, 173-174
diabetes mellitus, 117, 123, 149, 655
hypertension, 108-109
as indicator of disease incidence, 29
PAD, 106
patterns of, for major chronic diseases, 690-691
MUFA, see Monounsaturated fatty acids
Muffins, 73
Multiple myeloma, 339
Muscle meats, 67
Mutagenicity
aflatoxins, 487
arsenic, 392
cadmium, 389
carcinogenicity and, 12, 34, 91, 662
coffee, 469
cycasin, 489
ethanol, 440
food colors, 478-479
hydrazines, 487
lead, 394
mercury, 391
nonnutritive sweeteners, 472, 473
pesticides, 483
polychlorinated biphenyls, 480
polyvinyl chloride, 481
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, 489
salt, 421
trace elements, 369, 372, 374-375, 378, 383, 385
see also Mutagens
Mutagenicity tests
Ames Salmonella assay, 378, 392, 394, 476-478, 480, 481, 486, 487, 489
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Bacillus subtilis rec assay, 389, 392, 394, 478, 487
Drosophila melanogaster, 473, 476, 481
Escherichia coli assay, 383, 385, 389, 392, 394, 469, 478, 481
host-mediated assay, 486
limitations of, 473
platelet incorporation and fluctuation assays, 383
Saccharomyces cerevisiae assay, 394
Salmonella typhimurium assay, 369, 383, 389, 440, 469, 485, 486, 487
Schizosaccharomyces pombé assay, 481
see also Cell cultures; In vitro tests and studies; Organ cultures
Mutagens
produced in cooked foods, 485-486, 662
see also specific mutagens
Mutations
carriers of, 86-87
detection of, 87
immune system, 85
LDL receptor, 86
Mycotoxins, 486-487
Myocardial infarction
alcohol intake and, 444
atherosclerosis and, 161
death certification classification, 100
energy intake and, 148
familial hypercholesterolemia and, 171, 176, 195
niacin and, 337
risk factors for, 148
serum cholesterol and, 148, 162, 165
see also Coronary heart disease
Myristic acid, 13, 184, 186, 189, 227, 670
Myricetin, 469
N
Nasopharyngeal cancer, 440
National Cancer Institute
public information programs, 77
National Center for Health Statistics, energy intake data from, 140;
see also Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
National Cholesterol Education Program, 77, 167-168, 676
National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
advance notification of survey, 45
biochemical data collected by, 44, 51, 52, 71, 72, 108, 369, 394
body weight trends in, 115
comparability of NFCS data with, 45-48, 56, 81
description of, 42, 43, 51, 81
diet-disease studies using data from, 51-52
dietary intake data, 52, 54-56, 61-62, 64, 65, 73, 161, 223, 293-294, 312, 329, 331, 348, 368, 370, 510, 513
energy intake trends in, 148
food composition data in, 46-48
methods of assessing dietary intake, 27, 45-46, 50
missing data in, 45
nutrients and food constituents reported in, 47, 51, 63-74
populations represented by, 44-45, 49, 51, 223
problems in assessing nutritional status, 49-51, 81
standards of dietary adequacy used in, 48-49
use of data in other studies and surveys, 43, 44, 80, 202, 207, 351, 355, 394
see also Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes of Individuals; Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
National Health Examination Survey, blood pressure data from, 108
National Health Interview Survey, 61, 512
National Health Survey, dental caries data from, 127, 128
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, public education programs, 77
National High Blood Pressure Education Program, 77
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 431
National Institutes of Health
dietary recommendations, 676, 677, 685, 687
Consensus Conference on Cholesterol, 226, 676
Consensus Conference on Osteoporosis, 681
Consensus Conference on Treatment of Hypertriglyceridemia, 170
opinion surveys on health and diet, 80
National Nutrition Monitoring System, 44
National Research Council
Committee on Diet, Nutrition, and Cancer, 666, 676, 688
Committee on Nitrite and Alternative Curing Agents in Foods, 475
cyclamate reviews, 473
pesticide studies, 43
Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (NFCS)
comparability of NHANES data with, 45-48, 56, 81
description of, 81
dietary intake data from, 52-56, 59, 60-73, 75-76, 140-141, 161, 260, 274, 293, 311-312, 329, 330, 348, 368, 370, 466, 696
energy intake data from, 148
fat intake data from, 160, 161
food composition data in, 46-48
methods of assessing dietary intake, 45-46, 75
nutrients and food constituents reported in, 47, 62-74
populations represented by, 44-45, 81
problems in assessing nutritional status, 49-51, 81
response rates, 45
standards of dietary adequacy used in, 48-49, 52, 81
use of data in other surveys/studies, 43, 44, 75
Native Americans
alcohol intake by, 433-435
diabetes mellitus in, 123
fetal alcohol syndrome in, 449
obesity in, 90
see also specific tribes
Navaho Indians, 435
Nephrolithiasis, 354
Nephrotic syndrome, 171
Nervous system diseases and disorders
alcohol intake and, 16, 449-451, 673
aluminum and, 387-388
cancer and, 282
lead and, 395
mercury and, 391
nutritional deficiencies and, 450-451
phospholipids for treatment of, 116-117
testing of pesticides for contribution to, 43
vitamin B6 deficiency and, 516
see also specific disorders
Netherlands
cancer in, 377
CHD in, 100-101, 164, 295, 376, 445
dietary recommendations in, 681, 686, 693
energy expenditure during preganancy in, 147
hypertension in, 355
obesity and overweight in, 114-115
serum cholesterol levels in, 163, 199
Neuropathy, 124
Nevada, CHD in, 102
New Jersey, cancer in, 313
New Mexico, cancer in, 313
New York
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 447
New Zealand
bone fracture in, 121
dietary recommendations in, 681, 686
hypertension in, 442
NFCS, see Nationwide Food Consumption Survey
NHANES, see National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
Niacin
animal studies of, 336
availability trends, 53, 66, 75
cancer and, 334-336
biologic role of, 330
data sources on availability of, 47-48
fortification of foods with, 75
human studies of, 336
intake trends, 66, 77-79, 81, 330
liver disease and, 336
monitoring status, 63, 66, 81, 331
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NE, 68
pellagra and, 33
safety index, 518
Nicotinamide, see Niacin
Nicotinic acid, see Niacin
NIDDM, see Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Nitrates, nitrites, and N-nitroso compounds
animal studies of, 475-476
carcinogenicity of, 12, 331, 334-336, 339, 386, 421, 474-475, 662
in coffee, 468-469
epidemiologic studies of, 475
formation in the stomach, 474-475
mutagenicity of, 476
niacin and, 336
occurrence of and exposure to, 474-475
riboflavin and, 334
short-term tests of, 476
vitamin B12 and, 339
Nitrogen, see Protein
Nitropyrenes, 485
Nitrosamides, 320
Nitrosamines, 9, 320, 441, 468, 474, 475, 658
Nitrosoalkylamides, 476
N-Nitrosodimethylamine, 477
Nitrosometbylbenzylamine, 371
Nitrosomorpholin, 440
N-Nitrososarcosine, ethyl ester, 386
Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
animal models for, 152, 276-277
animal studies of, 149, 152, 276-277
body fat distribution and, 123, 659, 673
body weight and, 10, 16, 659, 673
carbohydrates and, 9, 274-277, 284, 658
clinical studies of, 275-276
complications of, 124
country differences in incidence, 122
dietary management of, 275, 676, 680
energy intake and, 149
epidemiologic studies of, 274-275
fiber and, 299
genetic and familial factors in, 86, 89-90, 122, 123
hypercholesterolemia and, 275
hypertriglyceridemia and, 275, 276
insulin resistance and, 122, 276, 277
marker for, 122
mortality rates, 123
obesity and, 9, 10, 277, 655, 659, 676
physical exercise and, 152
population differences in, 276
racial and ethnic differences in, 123
research needs on, 95, 303, 630
as a risk factor for other diseases, 123
sex differences in, 123
socioeconomic status and, 123
thermogenesis and, 152
time trends in incidence of, 123, 655
U.S. incidence of, 122
see also Diabetes mellitus; Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Nonnutritive dietary components, food safety laws for, 465-466;
see also Coffee and tea; Food additives; Nonnutritive sweeteners; and other specific nonnutritive substances
Nonnutritive sweeteners
animal studies of, 472, 473-474
aspartame, 473-474
cancer and, 471-474
cyclamate, 472-473
epidemiologic studies of, 471-472
evidence of chronic disease from, 471-474
occurrence of and exposure to, 471
phenylketonuria and, 474
recommended intakes of, 680
reproductive effects of, 473
saccharin, 471-472
short-term studies of, 472, 473-474
weight reduction with, 474
Noodle dishes, 72-73
Norepinephrine, 149
North Carolina, calcium intake and bone mass in, 352
Norway
cancer in, 118, 313, 438, 467, 468
dietary recommendations in, 682, 686
hyperlipidemia in, 443
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 144
Nutrient densities
expression of, 148
foods eaten away from home, 75-76
SFAs, 208
Nutrients
added during food preparation, 25
analytical data available for, 48
determinants of physiological requirements for, 4
genetic variability and responsiveness to, 95
individual differences in requirements for, 49
interactions of, 6
reported by national studies, 47
see also specific nutrients
Nutrition
biologic processes in, 85, 86, 94;
see also Absorption; Excretion; Metabolism; Receptor action
gene product variation and, 85-86, 93, 94
Nutrition monitoring
Coordinated State Surveillance System, 44
National Nutrition Monitoring System, 44
see also National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; Nationwide Food Consumption Surveys
Nutrition research
animal studies in, 33-34
controlling diet in, 32
links to agricultural research, 28
see also specific studies
Nutritional inadequacies and deficiencies alcohol intake and, 10, 16, 434, 441-442, 448-449, 450-451, 634, 660, 673
carcinogenic effects of, 441
in children, 225
groups at risk of, 81
liver injury and, 448-449
nervous system disorders and, 450-451
pattern of development, 49
impact of dietary recommendations on, 695-696
sample size needed for detection in populations, 49
see also specific nutrients
Nutritional status
age and, 51
biochemical assessment of, 50, 51
defined, 49
dietary intake trends and, 41-82
dietary supplementation and, 513-514
energy expenditure and, 153
food fortification and, 74-75
national surveys of dietary intake and, 42-52, 75
problems in assessing, 49-51, 81
supplement use and, 513-514
see also specific nutrients
Nuts
availability trends, 57
nutrients in, 62, 64, 66, 67, 70-72, 259, 312, 370, 381
O
Oatmeal, cooked, 73
Obesity
alcohol intake and, 144, 436-437
animal models of, 276-277
animal studies of, 7, 91, 143, 145, 146-147, 221-222, 281-282, 574, 576, 577, 582
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 10, 117, 221, 569-572, 676
blood pressure and, 112, 415, 420, 577
body fat distribution and, 565, 566, 568, 577, 578, 676
body mass index and, 90, 114, 564-566, 569, 570
body weight and, 144, 146, 567, 5755end577, 659
bone, joint, and skin disorders, 580, 659
brown adipose tissue and, 147
cancer and, 10, 117, 221, 571, 575-576, 659, 676
carbohydrates and, 9, 277, 281-282, 284, 567, 658
cardiac function and, 569, 578-579
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CHD and, 376, 535, 569-571, 578, 659
childhood adiposity and, 566, 685
clinical studies of, 7, 221, 281, 571-572, 573-574, 575, 576, 577, 579-580, 581-582
country differences in, 114-115
diabetes mellitus and, 9, 10, 117, 276, 571, 573-574, 655, 659, 676
dietary management of, 474, 673, 676
endocrine disorders and, 581-582
energy balance and, 153, 567-568, 655, 659
energy expenditure and, 142-143, 567-568, 659
energy intake and, 9, 10, 16, 149, 220, 281, 284, 567-568, 577
energy transfer efficiency and, 143
environmental factors in, 90, 568
epidemiologic studies of, 90, 144, 220-221, 281, 569-571, 573, 575-577, 578, 579, 581
fat cell size and number and, 583
fat intake and, 7, 13, 14, 54, 144, 220-222, 229, 567, 655, 656, 670, 671
fiber and, 300
gallbladder disease and gallstones and, 7, 10, 117, 127, 218, 219, 229, 575, 656, 659, 676
genetic and familial factors in, 10, 16, 86, 87, 90-91, 94, 116-117, 415, 568-569, 659, 668
HDL cholesterol levels, 117, 146, 571
hematologic and immunologic consequences of, 579-580
hypercellular and hypertrophic, 566
hyperphagia and, 145, 568, 583
hypertension and, 10, 108, 117, 149, 415, 572-573, 659, 676
hypertrophic, 146
hypoglycemia and, 447
lipid metabolism and, 571-572, 676
measurement of, 114
metabolic efficiency and, 10, 568, 577, 659
misconceptions about, 582-583
myocardial infarction and, 148
PAD and, 107
physical activity and, 10, 140-141, 142, 144, 146, 281, 659
population differences in frequency, 114-114
pregnancy and, 580-581
prospective studies of, 569-570, 578
psychosocial factors in, 116
pulmonary function and, 579
racial, ethnic, and migrant differences in, 88, 90, 114-115, 116, 149
research needs on, 95
retrospective life insurance studies of, 569-570
as a risk factor for chronic diseases, 117
risk factors for, 115-117
sex differences in, 115-116, 144
socioeconomic status and, 116
stroke and, 578
subclinical detection of, 30
time trends in frequency of, 115
in the United States, 114
see also Adipose tissue/adiposity; Body fat/fatness; Body weight; Overweight
Observational studies
blood pressure, 201-202
cancer, 210
of children, 225
CHD, 533-534
compared to experimental studies, 36
criteria for evaluating, 28-29
disease incidence and prevalence assessment in, 29-30
problems common to, 29-32
serum or plasma lipids/lipoproteins, 188, 210, 225, 533-534
weight given to, 36
see also Case-control studies; Dietary intake; Longitudinal (cohort) studies
Obstructive atherothrombotic disease, 106
Occupational factors and exposures
in cancer, 12, 368, 371, 380-381, 382, 389, 391-393, 479-480, 483-484
in CHD, 102-103
environmental contaminants, 479-480
ethanol, 437
pesticides, 483-484
trace element toxicity and, 385, 388, 389, 390
trans-Octadecanoic acid, 58
Oils
cholesterol intake from, 58
nutrient contributions of, 64, 159, 160
recommended intake of, 13, 18, 670
vitamin composition of, 64
see also Salad and cooking oils; Vegetables fats and oils; and specific oils
Oklahoma, CHD in, 102
Oleic acid
data sources on availability of, 47
hydrogenation of oils rich in, 186
intake trends, 56
serum cholesterol-lowering poperties, 184, 228
structure of, 159
Olive oil, 13, 179, 182, 184, 213, 214, 671
Olives, 72
Onions, 297
Oranges, 73
Oregon, arsenic contamination of well water in, 391
Orientals, skin reaction to alcohol, 88, 93;
see also Asian Americans; Asian Indians
Organ culture, hamster tracheal system, 316
Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency, 86
Oropharyngeal cancer, 10, 313, 319, 334, 377, 441, 437, 660
Osteoarthritis, 16, 373, 580, 659, 673
Osteoporosis and osteomalacia
age and, 121-122, 316-318, 616, 620
alcohol intake and, 10, 619, 660
animal studies of, 317, 354, 375, 619-620
biologic marker, 29
bone mass and, 349-350
calcium and, 5, 11, 33, 317, 318, 349-355, 359, 375, 515, 616-617, 619, 654, 659, 661, 666, 674
cigarette smoking and, 621
clinical studies of, 264-265, 316-317, 351-352, 372-373, 375
diabetes and, 621
diagnosis of, 121
dietary modifications to prevent, 676, 680
drug intake and, 355
epidemiologic studies of, 264-265, 316-317, 351-352, 372-373, 375, 616-619
estrogen status and, 354, 515, 617, 620, 621
fiber intake and, 354-355, 618-619
genetic and familial factors in, 122, 620
hormonal status and, 69, 264, 316-317, 350, 354, 617, 620
mechanisms of action and interactions in, 317-318
medical conditions aggravating, 621-622
obesity and, 621
pathophysiological relationships in, 349-351
phosphorus and, 354, 375, 617-618, 619
previous fractures and, 621
population differences in frequency, 121, 615
protein intake and, 9, 264-265, 354, 618, 659
racial/ethnic differences in, 95, 122, 615, 620
reproductive history and, 621
research needs on, 95
socioeconomic status and, 122
subclinical detection of, 29-30
supplementation with calcium and, 352-354, 515
syndromes, 121-122
time trends in frequency of, 121
vitamin D and, 316-318, 616, 618
zinc intake and, 372-373
see also Bone density losses
Ovarian cancer
age and, 120
carbohydrates and, 282
characteristics of, 120
contraceptive use and, 599
defining, 120
endocrine-related, 210
epidemiologic studies of, 209, 299, 468, 599
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incidence of, 599
genetic or familial factors in, 120
other cancers associated with, 118, 120, 599
population differences in, 120, 599
protein and, 264
socioeconomic status and, 120, 599
vitamin B12 and, 339
Overweight
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, 117
body fat and, 146
among children, 44
clinical studies of, 152
cross-sectional studies of, 144
defined, 114
food intake and, 144
glucose tolerance and, 152
other cancers associated with, 120
physical exercise and, 16, 146, 152
sex differences in, 144
see also Obesity
Oxyphenbutazone, 322
P
Pacific Islanders
cancer in, 119
CHD in, 102
diabetes in, 299
neurological disorders in, 387
obesity in, 90
PAD, see Peripheral arterial disease
Palm oils, 13, 159, 184, 205, 670
Palmitic acid, 13, 183, 184, 186, 189, 227, 670
Pancreatic cancer
alcohol intake and, 10, 438, 597, 660
carbohydrates and, 282
cigarette smoking and, 597
diagnosis of, 119
epidemiologic studies of, 263-264, 438, 468
incidence, 597
meat consumption and, 597
niacin and, 336
population differences in, 119
protective dietary components for, 9, 215, 315, 322, 377
protein intake and, 263-264
race differences in, 119
sex differences in, 119
socioeconomic status and, 119
U.S. incidence of, 119
vitamin B12 and, 339
Pancreatitis, 170
Pantothenic acid
animal studies of, 340
cancer and, 340
data sources on availability of, 47
ESADDI, 48
human studies of, 340
hypertension and, 340
liver disease and, 340
safety index, 518
Parathyroid hormone, 316, 318, 350-351, 353, 355, 356, 360
Parkinsonian dementia, 387
Parsley, 489
Parsnips, 489
Peanuts, 67
Peas, 57
Pectin, 62, 291, 292, 295, 298-302, 658
Pediatric population, nutrition monitoring of, 44;
see also Infants and children
Pellagra, 33
Peripheral arterial disease (PAD)
age and, 106
angina pectoris and, 107
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 107
cigarette smoking and, 106, 107, 538
clinical syndromes, 105, 537-538
data scarcity on, 106
familial associations in, 106
glucose tolerance and, 106, 107, 538
hypertension and, 107, 113, 538
large-vessel, 107
lipoprotein levels and, 107, 538
physical activity and, 107
risk factors for, 106-107, 538-539
serum cholesterol and, 107, 538
sex and, 105
small-vessel, 107
triglycerides and, 107, 175, 538-539
in the United States, 537-538
see also Intermittent claudication
Peripheral vascular diseases
in animals, 200
arsenic and, 391
blood lipids and lipoproteins and, 175
diabetes mellitus and, 124
rates of, 194
Pesticides
carcinogenicity of, 12, 43, 381, 392, 482-483, 662, 695
on fruits and vegetables, 18, 675
limitations of laboratory methods for, 43
nervous system damage from, 43
occurrence of and exposure to, 18, 392, 482, 695
public beliefs about exposures to, 43
regulation of, 43
reproductive effects in laboratory animals, 484-485
residue in foods, 391
survey of exposures to, 43
teratogenicity of, 43
testing of, 43
Phenanthrene, 441
Pharmacogenetics, 88
Phenobarbital, 440
Phenolic antioxidants, see Butylated Hydroxyanisole: Butylated hydroxytoluene
Phenylthiocarbamide, 85
Philippines
energy expenditure during preganancy in, 147
vitamin A deficiency in, 316
Phosphatidylcholine, 191, 216-217
Phosphatidylethanolamine, 191
Phosphatidylglycerol, 160
Phosphatidylinositol, 160, 191
Phosphatidylserine, 191
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, 386
Phosphoinositides, 217
Phospholipids, 125, 160, 216-217
Phosphorus
alcoholism and, 451
biologic role of, 347, 349, 357, 661
calcium balance and, 265, 354, 357-358, 617-618
data sources on availability of, 47-48
excesses of, 357-358
fiber intake and, 301
hypophosphatemia and, 357
impaired absorption of, 86
intake trends, 70, 77-79, 81, 349
monitoring status, 81
osteoporosis and, 354, 617-618
safety index, 518
Photosensitivity, 314
Physical activity/exercise
aerobic, 151
body fat and, 139, 144, 146, 151
body weight and, 146, 151, 152, 436, 673
bursts of, 151
cancer and, 152-153
cardiovascular function and, 151-152
CHD risk and, 16, 103, 151, 153, 536-537
diaries of, 141
gallbladder disease and, 127
glucose tolerance and, 146, 151, 152, 153
HDL levels and, 443
hypertension and, 108, 112, 555
insulin metabolism and, 146, 151, 152
intermittent claudication and, 107
myocardial infarction and, 148
NIDDM and, 152
obesity and, 140-141, 142, 144, 281, 659
osteoporosis and, 69, 375, 621
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recommendations for, 16-18, 675, 678-680, 682-683, 696
resting metabolic rate and, 146
trace element levels and, 381
vitamin requirements and, 330
see also Energy expenditure
Phytoene, 314
Phytosterolemia, 201
Pima Indians
diabetes mellitus in, 123
energy expenditures by, 143
obesity in, 88
Pituitary hypofunction, 150
Plains Indians, 274
Plant constituents and metabolites. toxic, 488-490
Plant foods
intake trends, 41
protective effects of, 9-10, 672
see also specific vegetables and fruits
Plant protein, 18, 259, 260-261, 262:
see also Soy protein
Plaque, atherosclerotic
aortic, 106
creation of, 529
intermittent claudication and, 172
progression of fatty streaks to, 222, 529-530
qualitative changes with age, 530
thrombosis and, 530-531
see also Atherosclerotic lesions
Plasma cholesterol, see Serum or plasma cholesterol
Plasma lipids and lipoproteins, see Serum or plasma lipids and lipoproteins
Platelet function
atherosclerosis and, 190
docosahexaenoic acid and, 191
eicosahexaenoic acid and, 191
endothelial injury and, 177
hyperreactivity, 190
w-3 PUFA role in, 190-191
w-6 PUFA role in, 190
Plummer-Vinson disease, 334, 368, 441
Poland
cancer in, 118
CHD in, 100-101
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), 480
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 12, 43, 479-480, 662
Polycose, 281
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12, 36, 368, 387, 421, 441, 481, 485, 662
Polycythemia vera, 339
Polynesians, pancreatic cancer in, 119
Polyneuropathy, 450
Polysaccharides, 58, 273, 291, 292, 295;
see also Fiber; Starches
Polyunsaturated fats and fatty acids (PUFAs)
animal studies of, 8, 189, 195-196, 204, 213
atherosclerosis and, 195-196
cancer and, 8, 14, 174, 205, 213-214, 229, 672, 694
clinical and metabolic studies of, 8, 184-188, 218-219
data sources on availability of, 47
food sources of, 159, 223, 261, 672
gallbladder disease and gallstones and, 218-219
HDL cholesterol levels and, 8, 188
hydrogenated, 186
hypocholesterolemia and, 182
intake trends, 41, 55, 161, 180, 181
LDL cholesterol levels and, 8, 183, 189
lipoprotein levels from, 184-188
mechanisms of action, 187-188
obesity and, 221
plasma lipids and lipoproteins and, 189
recommended intakes of, 14-15, 185, 671-672, 675, 677-680, 682-683, 685-687
serum cholesterol and, 8, 162, 177-178, 179, 183-189, 225, 261
structure of, 159
see also Arachidonic acid; Linoleic acid; w-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids: w-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids; w-9 Polyunsaturated fatty acids
w-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (w-3 PUFAs)
biologic role of, 159
blood pressure and, 205
cancer and, 8, 206, 213-215, 229, 657
clinical and metabolic studies of, 185-185
eicosanoid metabolism and, 190
food sources of, 8, 13, 15, 159, 192, 205, 206, 213, 227-228, 671
lipoprotein levels and, 185-186
serum or plasma cholesterol and, 185-186, 671
serum or plasma triglycerides and, 8, 13, 657, 671
platelet function and, 191
protective effects of, 192, 206, 213, 214, 227-228, 229, 657, 671
see also Docosahexaenoic acid; Eicosapentaenoic acid
w-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (w-6 PUFAs)
blood pressure and, 205
cancer and, 8, 206, 213-215, 229
clinical and metabolic studies of, 184-185
food sources of, 13, 205, 213, 671
HDL cholesterol and, 8, 189, 657
LDL cholesterol and, 8, 13, 189, 657, 671
liproprotein levels and, 184-186
serum or plasma cholesterol and, 8, 184-186, 227, 657
recommended intake of, 14-15, 672
structure, 159
see also Arachidonic acid: Linoleic acid
w-9 Polyunsaturated fatty acids. see Oleic acid
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 480-481, 662
Population differences
alcoholic cirrhosis, 125
atherosclerosis, 164
blood pressure, 108
cancer occurrence, 117-120, 207, 209, 212
cardiovascular disease, 192-193, 197
CHD rates and risk, 100-101, 113, 164, 166, 168, 170
among/within countries, see specific countries
dental caries, 127
diabetes mellitus, 274-275, 276
dietary cholesterol intake, 197
fat intake and chronic disease, 192-193
gallbladder disease and gallstones, 126
genetic traits, 87-88
HDL cholesterol, 166
hypertension, 108
LDL cholesterol, 166
obesity, 114-115
osteoporosis, 121
plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels from fat intake, 178-181
serum cholesterol, 163-164
stroke frequency, 103-104
triglycerides, 170
VLDL cholesterol, 170
see also Epidemiologic evidence. studies, cohorts: Race or ethnicity: and specific countries
Portal cirrhosis, see Alcoholic cirrhosis
Portugal
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
Potassium
animal studies, 423
biologic role of, 421
blood pressure and, 202, 261, 355, 415, 418-419, 422-423, 424
CHD and, 422-423
data sources on availability in food supply, 47-48
epidemiologic studies, 422-423
hypertension and, 202, 415, 418-419, 422-423, 424
magnesium deficiency and, 358
nutritional status, 73
protective effects of, 422, 424
recommended intakes of, 681
stroke and, 11, 15, 422-242, 660-661, 672
Potatoes
availability trends, 81
fresh, 57
fried, 56
intake trends, 56, 57, 58, 293, 654
nutrient contribution of, 62, 67, 73, 259, 273
recommended intakes of, 675
starch in, 261
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teratogens in, 489
white, 57
Poultry
availability trends, 57, 80, 160
fortification of, 75
nutrients provided by, 62, 65, 71, 160, 370
recommended intake of, 13, 18, 670, 675, 681
Praziquantel, 477
Pregnancy and lactation
alcohol intake during, 10, 16, 449-450, 451, 660, 673, 381
body fat distribution during, 145
carbohydrate intake during, 276
coffee intake during, 470
diabetes mellitus during, 134
energy balance during, 139, 141, 147
energy expenditure during, 142, 147
food intake during, 145
gallbladder disease and, 127
metabolic efficiency during, 145
nutrient requirements during, 81
nutrition monitoring during, 44
obesity and, 580-581
osteoporosis and, 621
RDAs for, 64-73
vitamin A toxicity during, 516
vitamin requirements for, 330
Premature coronary arteriosclerosis, 86
Premenstrual syndrome, 516
Prepared foods, nutrient labeling survey of, 43
Prevalence of disease
alcoholism and alcohol abuse, 431
anorexia nervosa, 584
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 178
bulimia, 584-585
CHD, 102
dental caries, 279
diabetes mellitus, 123
fetal alcohol syndrome, 449-450
gallbladder disease and gallstones, 126-127
hypertension, 108
iron-deficiency anemia, 369
measures of, 29-30
monitoring of, 44
obesity, 114-116
problems in assessment of, 29-30
stroke, 103-104
see also specific countries and U.S. states
Prevention
cholesterol absorption, 201, 229
dental caries, 280-281
large-scale trials, 172-175, 194-195
public health approach to, 6, 19, 229, 701-702
see also Dietary guidelines and recommendations; Protective effects
Probucol, 177
Processed foods, intake trends, 76
Prolactin, 214
Propylgallate, 441
Prospective cohort studies
CHD incidence and mortality, 164, 279, 570-571
diseases with long latency, 30
hypertension, 442
lead exposure, 395
obesity, 570-571
weight of evidence for causation, 4, 37, 653
Prostacyclin, 190
Prostaglandins, 190, 205, 214, 215
Prostate cancer
age and, 120
calcium supplementation and, 353
carbohydrates and, 282
coffee and tea and, 468
early detection of, 120
endocrine-related, 210
epidemiologic studies of, 7, 152, 153, 209, 229, 264, 468, 599-600
fat intake and, 7, 14, 206, 209, 210, 215, 600, 656, 671
hormonal status and, 600
mortality rates, 120
oleic acid and, 209
other cancers associated with, 118, 600
physical activity and, 152
population differences in, 120, 600
racial or ethnic differences in, 120, 599-600
SFAs and, 8, 209, 210, 215, 229, 656
trace elements and, 371, 380, 388, 389, 514, 600
vitamin A and, 313-314, 315, 318, 600
vitamin B12 and, 339
vitamin C and, 332
vitamin E and, 318
Protective effects
BHA, 477
BHT, 441
b-carotenes and carotenoids, 15, 207, 314, 322, 332, 341, 488
cereals, 295
chromium, 277
cocoa, 281
fiber, 208, 295-297, 299, 302, 202, 331
lycasin, 281
phosphate, 281
plant sterols, 201
protein, 281
w-3 PUFAs, 206, 213, 214, 215, 227-228, 229
retinoids, 315
saccharin, 281
selenium, 11, 277, 371-372, 377, 661
vegetables, 15, 207, 208, 297, 298, 341, 488
vitamin A, 488
xylitol, 281
Protein
age and, 16
animal studies of, 33, 261, 262, 264, 265
atherosclerosis and, 261, 262, 265, 658-659, 672
availability trends, 53, 80, 259-260, 654
biologic role of, 259
blood pressure and, 261-262, 355
body mass index and, 281
calcium balance and, 9, 16, 264-265, 354, 659, 673
cancer and, 9, 108, 109, 263-264, 299, 336, 659, 673
CHD and, 9, 15-16, 260-261, 673
clinical studies of, 260-261, 262, 264-265, 618
correlation with fat intake, 260, 263, 673
data sources on availability of, 27-28, 46-48, 51, 81, 259-260
dental caries and, 281
energy expenditure for storage as fat, 140, 151
energy intake from, 139-140
epidemiologic studies of, 260, 261-262, 263-265, 618
food sources of, 9, 18, 41, 55, 62-63, 76, 92, 259-260, 672, 675, 696
gallbladder disease and, 127
glucose tolerance and, 274
hormonal status and, 264
hypercholesterolemia and, 261, 265
hypertension and, 261-262, 659
intake trends, 15, 41, 54, 62-63, 76-79, 81, 142, 259-260, 673, 696
lipoprotein levels and, 260-261
malnutrition, 450
monitoring status, 81
nutritional value of, 259
osteoporosis and, 9, 264-265, 354, 618, 659
protective effects of, 281
recommended intakes of, 15-16, 17-18, 672-673, 675, 679, 680
renal disease (chronic), and 265
renal toxicity of, 264
serum cholesterol and, 260-261, 265, 659
stroke and, 262
vegetarian intakes of, 260, 262, 265
see also Animal protein; Plant protein
Protein kinase C, 215
Proteinuria, 276
Prunes, 73
Pseudocholinesterase variation, 88
Psoralens, 489
Psychosocial factors
hypertension and, 112, 415, 420, 554-555
obesity and overweight and, 116
see also Stress
Public information programs
breast cancer, 120
dietary fat, fiber, and cancer, 77
dietary fat/saturated fat, cholesterol, and heart disease, 77
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sodium and hypertension, 77, 80
Public opinion surveys on diet and health, 80
Puddings, 58
Puerto Rico
alcohol intake and, 437
hypertension in, 355
PUFAs, see Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Pulmonary function, obesity and, 579
Purine, 331
Pyridoxamine, see Vitamin B6
Pyridoxine, see Vitamin B6
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, 488-489
Q
Quinones, 489-490
R
Race or ethnicity
adherence to dietary guidelines, 80
alcohol intake and, 61, 434-435
alcoholic cirrhosis and, 125
CHD and, 102
cholesterol intake and, 161
dental caries and, 128
fetal alcohol syndrome and, 449-450
gallstones and, 218
genetic predisposition to disease, 87, 88, 94, 95
hypertension and, 11, 89, 95, 105, 109, 111-112, 149, 394, 419, 420, 554
nutrient intakes by, 70-71
obesity and overweight and, 88, 90, 115-116
osteoporosis and, 620
policy implications of, 88, 93
population studies of, 87-88
strokes and, 104
see also Asians; Blacks; Hispanics; Orientals
Radionuclides, survey of exposures to, 43
Randomized clinical studies
blood pressure in vegetarians, 262
strengths of, 30-31
weight of evidence for causation, 35
see also Clinical studies and trials; Intervention studies and trials
RDA, see Recommended Dietary Allowances
Receptor action
for LDL removal, 86, 88-89, 103
model for, 86
Recommended Dietary Allowances
adequacy of intakes below, 73, 81, 348
calcium, 48, 69, 348, 350, 360
cutoff points, 49
defined, 49
energy, 148
iodine, 48
use in national surveys, 48-49, 81
Recommended Energy Intakes, 52
Rectal cancer
alcohol intake and, 10, 438, 440, 660
carbohydrates and, 282
epidemiologic studies of, 152
fat intake and, 282
physical activity and, 152
sex differences in rates of, 118
vitamin E and, 319
see also Colorectal cancer
Red meats, 70, 80, 160, 370, 678
Reliability, of case-control studies, 31
Religious groups, see specific groups
Renal cancer, 206, 264, 282, 333, 336, 388-389, 391, 393-394
Renal disease (chronic)
alcohol intake and, 447
animal studies of, 265
cadmium and, 390
choline deficiency and, 216
clinical studies of, 265, 394-395
diabetes mellitus and, 124
epidemiologic studies of, 265, 394-395
glomerular sclerosis, 265, 277-278
high blood pressure and, 107, 418
lead and, 394-395
protein intake and, 265
triglycerides and, 171
vitamin D and, 318
Renin-angiotensin system, 205, 447
Reproductive effects
coffee and tea, 470-471
cyclamate, 473
pesticides, 484-485
see also Pregnancy and lactation
Research needs
alcohol and alcoholism, 95, 447, 453, 542, 556, 704, 705, 706
alcoholic cirrhosis, 635
apolipoproteins, 89
atherosclerosis, 541-542, 703, 705
atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, 229-230, 303, 360, 395, 541-542, 705
biologic markers of exposure, 21, 704-705, 706
blood pressure, 95, 360, 424-425, 556, 704
body mass determinants, 154, 703
BHA and BHT, 492
calcium, 360, 556, 622, 704, 705
cancer, 21, 230, 284, 322-323, 341, 395-396, 492-493, 604-605, 703, 704, 705, 706
carbohydrates, 154, 284, 303, 542, 630, 644, 703, 704, 705
carcinogens, 492-493, 704, 705
b-carotene and carotenoids, 322-323, 704, 706
CHD, 284, 541-542, 630, 703, 705
children, 425
clinical and metabolic studies, 21, 303, 322-323, 360, 541-542
colorectal cancer, 284
cooking/processing effects on foods, 493, 704
dental caries, 284, 644, 704, 705
diabetes, 284, 395, 630, 703, 705
dietary fat, 154, 541-542, 703, 705, 706
dose-response relationships, 21, 705
environmental factors in nutrition and disease, 425, 630, 703, 704, 706
epidemiologic studies, 303, 341, 360, 493, 704
fetal energy needs, 154
fiber, 81, 303, 360, 622, 630, 703, 705
gallstones, 220, 230-231, 635, 703, 705
genetic factors in disease and nutrition, 95, 154, 424-425, 453, 556, 605, 630, 644, 703, 705
genetic markers, 425, 453, 556, 705
HDL cholesterol, 154, 541, 703
hemochromatosis, 95
hypertension, 95, 420, 425, 556, 703, 704, 705
immune system, 396
interactions among nutrients, 21, 341, 395, 425, 705, 706
intervention studies, 21, 303, 425, 604-605, 706
lactose malabsorption, 92
lipoproteins, 284, 541-542, 703
metabolic disorders, 87, 95, 153, 284
methodologies, 21, 396, 604, 704
molecular and cellular nutrition, 21-22, 706
nonnutritive dietary constituents, 492-493, 704
nutritional requirements, 396, 705-706
obesity, 95, 230, 425, 630, 703, 705, 706
osteoporosis, 95, 360, 622, 704
PAD, 541
pediatric antecedents of disease, 556
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protein, 265-266, 360, 542, 556, 622, 630, 703, 705
public health program design, 21, 706
w-3 PUFAs (fish oils), 542, 703, 705
quantitative relationships, 605, 705-706
racial/ethnic differences in disease frequency, 95, 556, 706
renal disease, 266, 447, 630, 705
responsiveness to nutrients, 95, 705
resting metabolic rate, 154
risk-altering dietary constituents, 20-21, 703-704
salt sensitivity, 95, 420, 425
serum cholesterol, 492
social and behavioral, 21, 703, 706
sodium, 424-425, 556, 704, 705, 706
stomach cancer, 303, 704, 705, 706
supplementation, 360, 520, 706
taste and olfaction, 95
thermogenesis, 146
vitamin D, 704
Respiratory tract cancer. see Lung cancer; and other specific cancers
Resting metabolic rate, 141, 142, 146, 153;
see also Energy expenditure; Energy intake
Retinol and other retinoids
animal studies of, 315-316
cancer and, 9, 315-316, 319, 322, 334, 377, 441, 658
deficiency diseases, 316
human studies of, 315
in vitro assays, 316
mechanisms of action, 316
protective effects of, 9
toxicity, 516
see also Vitamin A
Retinopathy, 277
Retrolental fibroplasia, 320
Retrospective life insurance studies, 569-570
Rhubarb, 489-490
Riboflavin
alcohol intake and, 335, 441, 450
animal studies of, 335-336
availability trends, 53, 65, 75
biologic roles of, 330
cancer and, 334, 335, 336, 341, 371, 441, 658
data sources on availability of, 47-48
fortification of foods with, 75
human studies of, 334-335
intake trends, 65, 77-79, 81, 330
liver disease and, 335-336
mechanisms of action in disease, 335
monitoring status, 63, 65, 81, 331
safety index, 518
Risk
CHD, 103, 165, 166-168, 170, 697-699
of excess nutrient intake, 51
of heterozygotes for nutritional disorders, 86-87, 92
of inadequate nutrient intake, 51
inferences of causality, 36
stroke, 105
Risk assessment
for body fat distribution, 144
from dietary lipid profiles, 698
for formulating dietary recommendations, 5-6, 666-667
interchangeability of methods, 26
population-attributable fraction in, 109, 697
from short-term tests, 34
Risk reduction
for cancer, 699-700
from cholesterol lowering, 19, 89, 697-699
defined, 4
population versus individuals, 6-7, 93, 652
from salt restriction, 89
Roughage, 80
Roumania, CHD in, 100-101
Rural populations
CHD in, 445
serum cholesterol in, 445
S
Saccharin, 12, 281, 283, 471-472
Safflower oil, 159, 182, 184, 186, 187, 202, 203, 205, 223, 671
Salad and cooking oils, 18, 55, 57, 58, 64, 160, 186, 654, 675
Salad dressings, 18, 56, 58, 675
Salami, 421
Salt
appetite centers, 413
atrophic gastritis and, 11
blood pressure and, 10, 16-17, 89, 202-205, 415-417, 422, 424, 660, 674
conversion to mg sodium, 72
depletion, 414
discretionary addition of, 414
estimation of intake of, 415, 421
excretion, 414
historical uses of, 413
hypertension and, 10-11, 16, 33, 77, 80, 89, 95, 108, 202, 203, 417-418, 420, 660, 668, 674, 681
preservation of foods with, 18, 421, 413
public information programs on, 77, 80
recommended intake of, 16-17, 18, 660-661, 673-674, 678-681, 686-688, 696
restricted intake, and blood pressure, 89
see also Hypertension
stomach cancer and, 11, 17, 420-421, 674, 675, 681, 682-683
stroke and, 421
substitutes, 424
supplements, 423-424
Salt-cured (salt-pickled) foods, 11, 16, 17, 72, 421, 424, 475, 660-661, 673, 674, 675, 681, 695
San Francisco Bay Area, cancer in, 118
Saturated fats and fatty acids (SFAs)
animal studies of, 288
atherosclerosis and, 7, 23, 103, 195-196, 228, 656
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 7, 13, 196, 656, 666, 670
animal studies of, 189, 195-196
availability trends, 54, 80, 564
blood pressure and, 201, 203-205
body mass index and, 221
body weight and, 144
cancer and, 5, 7, 8, 14, 174, 206-210, 215, 229, 263, 656, 671
CHD and, 5, 6, 7-8, 14, 54, 77, 93, 102, 192, 228, 656, 666, 668, 671, 694, 698-699
data sources on availability of, 47
dietary cholesterol and, 200
food sources of, 13, 16, 18, 56, 159, 204. 205. 222, 223, 670, 675
intake trends, 41, 55, 56, 81, 160, 161, 180
LDL cholesterol and, 7-8, 13, 227, 228, 656, 670
lipoproteins and, 182-184
mechanisms of action, 187-188
monitoring status, 81
nutrient densities of, 208
plasma lipids and lipoproteins and, 7, 189
recommended intakes of, 13, 14, 17-18, 226, 229, 666, 669, 670, 671, 675, 677-680, 682-683, 685-688, 692-693
serum or plasma cholesterol and, 7-8, 13, 162, 178-180, 182-189, 195, 225, 227, 228, 656, 666, 669, 670
structure of, 159
see also specific fatty acids
Saudi Arabia, alcohol intake in, 435
Schistosomiasis, 120
Scotland
cancer in, 384
CHD in, 100-101
energy expenditure during preganancy in, 147
hypertension in, 391
Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, see National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys
Page 745
Seeds
nutrients in, 62, 66, 70, 72, 292, 312, 349
Segregation analysis, 87
Selenium
alcohol consumption and, 376
animal studies of, 376-377, 378
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 376-377
biologic marker of intake, 28
biologic role of, 375-376
cancer and, 11, 318-319, 322, 335, 371-372, 377-379, 602, 661, 667
cigarette smoking and, 376
clinical studies of, 376
data sources on availability in food supply, 47
epidemiologic studies of, 376, 377-378
fiber intake and, 301
hypertension and, 390
intake trends, 74
interactions with other elements, 376, 390
mechanisms of action in cancer, 378-379
mutagenicity of, 378
protective effects of, 11, 277, 371-372, 378-379, 395, 661, 667
safety index for, 518
short-term tests of, 378
Selenodiglutathione, 379
Serbia, CHD in, 164
Serine, 331
Serum or plasma cholesterol absorption, synthesis, and excretion of, 188-189
action of dietary components that raise, 171, 187, 195
alcohol intake and, 443
apo E and, 168
biologic role of, 162
cancer and, 14, 18, 174, 206, 210-211, 229, 671, 692-693
carbohydrates and, 276-278
carriers of, 160
cerebral hemorrhage and, 194
CHD risk and, 6, 7, 13, 14, 19, 32, 86, 88-89, 93, 101, 102, 103, 107, 163-165, 167, 170, 172, 174, 175, 178, 195, 224, 225, 227, 228, 376, 444, 533-534, 671, 697-699, 700-701
clinical and metabolic studies of, 174, 182-189
coffee intake and, 11, 469, 662
dietary cholesterol intake and, 8, 13, 178, 189, 195, 197, 198-199, 201, 228, 357, 670
extrinsic factors in, 181-182
familial hypercholesterolemia and, 103, 171
trans fatty acids and, 187
fiber intake and, 9, 292, 294, 295-296, 302, 659
food intake and, 148
gallbladder disease and, 127, 217-218
hydrogenated vegetable oils and, 186, 189
intermittent claudication and, 107, 175
interventions for lowering, 172-174, 178, 182;
see also Clinical studies/trials
LDL cholesterol and, 179, 181-183, 197, 199, 201
low-fat diets and, 32
lowering effects of nutrients and foods, 8, 162, 182, 184-186, 194, 195, 217, 227, 260-261, 265
measurement of, 188
MUFA intake and, 8, 184, 189, 229, 357
myocardial infarction and, 148, 162, 165
observational studies of, 533-534
peanut oil and, 187
population differences in, 163-164, 178-181, 195, 445
predictive equations for, 180, 182, 184, 198-199, 533
protein intake and, 260, 261, 265
PUFA intake and, 18, 184-186, 194, 195
SFA intake and, 7-8, 13, 162, 178-179, 182-187, 195, 225, 227, 228, 656, 666, 670
trace elements and, 370, 382, 515
transport of, 162
vegetarianism and, 8, 264, 294
see also Dietary cholesterol; HDL cholesterol; LDL cholesterol
Serum or plasma lipids and lipoproteins
age and, 224
animal studies of, 189
apolipoproteins and, 168
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 163-178, 223-224
body weight and, 148
cell receptors for, 103
childhood arterial lesions and, 223-224
in children, 223-225
dietary cholesterol and, 197
dietary intakes and, 224, 225;
see also specific foods and nutrients
dietary phospholipids and transport of, 217
ecological associations, 224
familial associations, 224
fish oils and, 185
functions and transport mechanisms, 160, 162-163, 217
lowering of, 172
macrophage interaction with, 176
observational studies of diet and, 225
peripheral vascular diseases and, 175
sex and, 224
stroke and, 175-176
trace element intake and, 515
tracking of, 224-225
Sesquiterpene lactone, 490
Seventh-Day Adventists
cancer in, 209, 210, 212, 263, 437, 467, 445, 446, 693, 695
stroke in, 194
Sex differentials
in adherence to dietary guidelines, 80
bladder cancer, 120
body weight, 52
breast cancer, 119-120
carbohydrate intake, 59
cholesterol intake, 161
colorectal cancer, 118, 119, 208, 297, 438
eating patterns, 75
energy intake, 53, 59, 77-79, 81, 140, 148, 153
esophageal cancer, 118
gallbladder disease and gallstones and, 127, 218
hemochromatosis, 92
liver cancer, 119
lung cancer, 119
mineral intakes, 69-74, 77-79, 81
obesity and overweight, 90, 114, 115-116
pancreatic cancer, 119
plasma lipids and lipoproteins, 224
prostate cancer, 120
protein intake, 16, 62-63, 77-79
RDAs, 64-73
stomach cancer, 118
strokes, 104
sugar intake, 59
vitamin intakes, 64-68, 77-79, 81
SFA, see Saturated fats and fatty acids
Shellfish, 13, 18, 71, 73, 370, 671, 675,
see also Seafood; and specific shellfish
Short-bowel syndrome, 321
Short-term tests and studies
advantages and disadvantages in nutrition research, 34
arsenic, 392
aspartame, 473-474
BHA, 477
BHT, 477-478
cadmium, 389
carbohydrates, 278
chromium, 383
coffee and tea, 469
cyclamate, 473
eicosanoid effect on platelet function, 191
fluoride, 374-375
food colors, 478-479
iron, 369
lead, 394
manganese, 385
mercury, 391
molybdenum, 387
mycotoxins, 487
need for, 51
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nitrites, nitrates, and N-nitroso compounds, 476
pesticides, 483-484
polybrominated biphenyls, 480
polychlorinated biphenyls, 480
polyvinyl chloride, 481
saccharin, 472
salt, 421
selenium, 378
zinc, 372
see also Cell cultures; In vitro tests and studies: Mutagenicity tests: and specific tests
Shortening, 55, 57, 160, 186, 476
Sickle-cell disease, 94
Silicon, 291
Singapore, cancer in, 438
Sitosterol, 160
Skin cancer, 9, 150, 314, 315, 318, 319, 320, 332, 378, 380, 392, 395, 441, 469, 658
Skinfold measurements, 114, 143, 180, 450
Snack foods
carbohydrates in, 76
dental caries and, 280
fats in, 76
fortification of, 74
intake trends, 76
introduction of, 42
protein in, 76
sodium in, 73
Socioeconomic status
alcohol intake and, 62
alcoholic cirrhosis and, 125
cancer and, 118-120
carbohydrate intake and, 59, 274, 275
cholesterol intake and, 58, 161
dental caries and, 128
diabetes mellitus and, 123, 275
dietary intake and, 41, 80, 81, 180-181
endometrial cancer and, 120
fetal alcohol syndrome and, 449
LDL cholesterol and, 224
meat intake and, 63
mineral intake and, 70-71
osteoporosis and, 122
serum cholesterol levels and, 179, 180-181
vitamin intake and, 64-69, 312, 331
Sodium
alcohol intake and, 447
animal studies on, 417-418, 421
availability trends, 72
biologic markers of intake, 28
biologic role of, 413
conversion to mg of salt, 72
data sources on availability in food supply, 47-48
food sources of, 72-73
hereditary factors interacting with, 418
human studies of, 415-417, 420-421
hypertension and, 77, 80, 89, 112, 414-420
physiologic requirements for, 414
public information programs on, 77, 80
sensitivity in humans, 420
transport mechanisms, 418-419
see also Salt
Sodium bicarbonate, 414
Sodium chloride, see Salt
Sodium glutamate, 414
Sodium a-methylpanthothenate, 340
Soft drinks, 58, 60, 61, 74, 76, 81, 274, 466, 468, 470, 471
Solanine, 489
Soups, 72
Sour cream, 315
South Africa
dental caries in, 127
diverticulitis in, 300
hypertension in, 442
plasma lipid/lipoproteins and fat intake levels in, 179
South America
alcohol consumption in, 433
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 447
Southeast Asians, thalassemia among, 93
Soviet Union
cancer in, 118
CHD in, 167
gout in, 386
Soybean oil, 13, 64, 159, 184, 186, 223, 319, 671
Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children, 224
Spinocerebellar degeneration, 217
Sprue, 321
Squash, winter, 82
Starches
cancer and, 282
CHD and, 279
dental caries and, 279
linoleic acid from, 202
resistant, 291
wheat, 281
Starvation, alcohol-related, 447
Stearic acid, 184
Stigmasterol, 201
Stomach cancer
alcohol intake and, 437-438, 595
animal studies of, 420-421
carbohydrates and, 282, 595, 657
copper and, 380
ecogenetic factors in, 91
epidemiologic studies of, 264, 298-299, 420-421, 438, 594-595
fat intake and, 595
incidence and mortality rates of, 118, 593, 594, 655
iron and, 368
lead and, 393
mechanisms of action in, 421
nitrates, nitrites, and N-nitroso compounds and, 475, 595
prevention of, 19
protective dietary components for, 8, 9, 15, 488, 595, 672
protein intake and, 264
regional differences in, 118
salt or sodium and, 11, 17, 420-421, 424, 475, 594-595, 603, 674, 681
selenium and, 377
sex differences in, 118
socioeconomic status and, 118
vitamin C and, 9, 332, 341, 488, 595, 658
vitamin E and, 319
Stress (psychosocial), 381, 415, 417, 451
Stroke
age and, 15, 104, 105, 540, 672
alcohol intake and, 10, 105, 442-443, 660
animal studies of, 262-263
blood lipids and lipoproteins and, 175-176
body fat distribution and, 105, 117, 144, 540, 659
body weight and, 105
CHD and, 105
cigarette smoking and, 105, 443
clinical syndromes, 539
country differences in, 103-104
diabetes and, 105
diagnosis of, 104
environmental factors in, 104-105, 540
epidemiologic studies of, 202, 262, 422-423
genetic and familial differences in, 105
habitual diet and, 105
HDL cholesterol and, 539-540
hemorrhagic, 202, 442, 443, 539
hypertension and, 10, 104, 105, 107, 113, 539, 540, 693-694
mortality rates, 103, 104, 125, 655
population differences in frequency, 103-104, 539
potassium and, 11, 15, 422-423, 660-661, 672
protein intake and, 9, 262-263, 659
racial, ethnic, and migrant differences in, 5, 104-105, 540, 672
residual damage from, 104
risk factors for, 29, 104-105, 194, 202, 539-540, 693-694
serum cholesterol and, 18, 104, 105, 539, 693-694
sex differences in, 104, 442-443
SFAs and, 540
sodium and, 11
thromboembolic, 202, 442, 443, 539
time trends in mortality and morbidity, 104
see also Cardiovascular diseases; Transient ischemic attacks
Page 747
Subarachnoid hemorrhage, 103, 104
Sucrose
blood pressure and, 149
cancer and, 282
cariogenicity, 9, 279, 281, 284
diabetes mellitus and, 275, 277
food sources of, 273
hyperglycemia and, 277
hypoglycemia and, 283
intolerance, 284
renal disease and, 278
triglyceride levels and, 278
see also Sugars
Sugars
added during food processing, 273
availability trends, 57, 58, 80, 274, 654
cancer and, 282
data sources on availability of, 47
dental caries and, 15, 280, 284, 672, 685
fortification of, 74
intake trends, 58-60, 76, 80, 274
invert, 280
recommended intake of, 15, 17, 18, 672, 675, 677-680, 682-683, 686-687
refined, 76
see also Fructose; Nonnutrititive sweeteners; Sucrose
Sunflower seed oil, 64, 204, 205, 261, 671
Supplements, see Dietary supplements/supplementation
Surveys, see Dietary surveys
Sweden
CHD in, 100-101
dietary guidelines in, 682, 686
Swedish Cancer Registry, 211
Swedish Twin Registry, 90
Sweeteners
availability trends, 80-81
research needs on, 81
artificial, see Aspartame; Cyclamates; Saccharin
see also Sugars; and other specific sweeteners
Sweets
intake trends, 54
mineral contribution of, 74
Switzerland
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
CHD in, 100-101
dental caries in, 127
Sympathetic nervous system
caloric intake effects on, 149
cardiovascular function, 152
fat intake effects on, 149
T
Taiwan
cancer in, 368
peripheral vascular disease in, 391
Tannins and tannic acid, 468-469, 490
Tarahumara Indians, cholesterol levels in, 166
Tardive dyskinesia, 216
Taste and olfaction
obesity and, 281
research needs on, 95
Tay-Sachs disease, 94
Tea, see Coffee and tea
Temperature (ambient)
energy intake and, 153
obesity and response to, 146
Tendon xanthomas, 171
Tennessee. CHD in, 102
Ten-State Nutrition Survey, 42-43, 90, 264, 351
Teratogenicity
pesticides, 43
vitamin A, 516
Testicular cancer, 206, 282, 593, 603
Thailand
cancer in, 487
energy expenditure during preganancy in, 147
hypertension in, 416
Thalassemia, 94
Thermogenesis (diet-induced)
adaptive, 141-142
adiposity and, 152
alcohol intake and, 436
of carbohydrates, fats, and protein, 141, 143
defined, 141
food intake and, 146
metabolic efficiency and, 152
NIDDM and, 152
Thiamin
availability trends, 53, 65, 75
biologic role of, 329-330
cancer and, 334
data sources on availability of, 47-48
fortification of foods with, 75
human studies of, 334
intake trends, 65, 77-79, 81, 330
monitoring status, 63, 65, 81, 331
safety index, 518
supplementation, 449
Third World countries, dental caries in, 127
Threonine, 259
Thrombosis, 104, 105, 161, 190
Thymidine, 337
Thymidylate, 331
Thyroid cancer, 380, 383-384, 477
Tissue histocompatability antigen (HLA), 85, 89, 122
a-Tocopherol, see Vitamin E
Tomatoes, 57, 67, 73, 297, 329
Total Diet Study
description of, 43
nutrients and food constituents reported in, 47, 63, 71, 72, 74, 348
Toxic substances
naturally occurring, 486-490
plant constituents and metabolites, 488-490
survey of exposures to, 43, 51
see also specific substances
Toxicity
from blocked catabolic pathway of essential amino acid, 86
of cholesterol derivatives, 201
iron, 92,
see Hemochromatosis
nutrient, and supplementation, 11, 515-517
see also specific dietary constituents
see also specific elements
Trace minerals, food composition data on, 28;
see also specific minerals
Tracheal cancer, 333
Transient ischemic attacks, defined, 103
Triglycerides
carbohydrate intake and, 275, 277, 278
characteristics of, 162-163
energy expenditure of storing dietary fats as, 140
fish oils and, 185
food intake and, 148
individual differences in, 170
myocardial infarction and, 148
PAD and, 107
population differences in, 170
PUFA intake and, 8, 13, 227, 657, 671
transport of, 162-163
vitamin E and, 320
1, 3, 7-Trimethylxanthine, 466
Tryptophan, 66, 259, 262, 330, 337, 440, 486
Tuberous xanthomas, 171
Tumorigenesis/tumors
caloric intake and, 150-151, 153
fiber intake and, 9
protein intake and, 264
see also Cancer; Carcinogenesis; and specific nutrient or nonnutritive component
Tungsten, 386-387
Turkey, 73
Tyrosine, 262
U
Ulcerative colitis, 321
Ultraviolet light
cancer and, 91, 314, 320, 332, 378
mutagenicity of, 385
Uganda, cancer in, 212
Underweight, among children, 44
trans-Unsaturated octadecanoic acid, 186-187
Urine, 28,
see also Excretion
United Kingdom
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125
cancer in, 313, 319, 389, 439, 467
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CHD in, 100-101, 102, 103, 693
dental caries in, 127
dietary recommendations in, 683, 686-687
ischemic heart disease in, 197
obesity and overweight in, 114-115
stroke in, 103
United States
alcohol intake patterns in, 431-433, 451-452
alcoholic cirrhosis in, 125, 447
bone fracture in, 121
cancer in, 117-120, 212, 313, 377, 384, 386, 388, 437, 439, 467, 468, 593-594
CHD in, 100-101, 102, 103, 164, 445, 469-470, 531-532
dental caries in, 127
diabetes mellitus in, 122
diverticulosis in, 300
fetal alcohol syndrome in, 449
gallbladder disease and gallstones in, 126, 218
hyperlipidemia in, 443
hypertension in, 105, 108, 394, 414, 442
malnutrition related to alcoholism in, 450
nitrosamines intake in, 475
salt intake in, 414
obesity and overweight in, 114-115
osteoporosis in, 121
PAD in, 537-538
protein intake patterns in, 259-260
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
temporal trends in CHD in, 101-102
see also specific states
Urinary tract infections, 475
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, 53
dietary recommendations, 676
food supply monitoring, 24, 259-260
fortification standards, 75
Human Nutrition Information Service, 42
joint nutrition monitoring activities with DHHS, 44, 676
national surveys of dietary intake and nutritional status. 42;
see also Historical Food Supply; Nationwide Food Consumption Surveys
Primary Data Set, 48
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
dietary recommendations, 676
joint nutrition monitoring activities with USDA, 44, 676
Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 99
surveys of food intake and nutritional status, 24, 42-43, 61;
see also Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys; Total Diet Study
U.S. Surgeon General, 434, 667, 676, 681
Utah, cancer in, 296
V
Valine, 259
Veal, 63
Vegans, 76;
see also Vegetarians and vegetarianism
Vegetable fats and oils
food sources of, 160
intake trends, 160
nutrient contribution of, 312
see also Polyunsaturated fats and fatty acids; Salad and cooking oils; and specific fats and oils
Vegetables
cancer and, 6, 15, 80, 207, 296, 297, 303, 332, 488, 666
canned, 73
see also Pesticides
dark green leafy, 17, 67, 69, 71, 311, 312, 329, 330, 674
fresh, 57
frozen with sauces, 73
green and yellow, 15, 18, 57, 64, 65, 70, 313, 488, 657-658, 672, 675
intake trends, 54, 76, 81, 260, 654
nitrates in, 475
nutrient contribution of, 15, 18, 48, 60, 62, 64-66, 72-74, 260, 293, 301, 311, 331, 349, 672
protective effects of, 8, 9, 15, 203, 207, 208, 296, 297, 303, 313, 332, 488, 657-658, 666, 672
processed, 57
raw, 488
recommended intakes of, 13-15, 18, 226, 670-672, 675, 679
vitamin content, 66
see also specific vegetables
Vegetarians and vegetarianism
alcohol intake and, 443
blood pressure and, 201, 262, 300, 302
defined, 76
historical trends, 76
lacto-ovo, 8-9, 76, 210, 212, 260, 262, 263, 294, 658
mineral status, 301
nutrient intakes, 8-9, 76-77, 78, 201, 260, 260, 278, 294, 295, 658
supplement use by, 515
serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels in, 8-9, 265, 294, 302, 658
Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)
carbohydrate intake and, 275, 278
composition of, 162-163
dietary cholesterol intake and, 199, 200
fatty acid effects on, 188
function of, 163
PAD and, 107
see also VLDL cholesterol
Vinyl chloride, 440
Vitamin A
alcohol intake and, 441, 450-451, 452
availability trends, 53, 64, 75, 311, 654
cancer and, 9, 51, 313-314, 315-316, 322, 331, 334, 371, 441, 488, 514, 516, 658
data sources on availability of, 47-48, 51, 81
fortification of foods with, 74, 75, 311
food records of intake of, 26
hypercarotenemia and, 314
intake trends, 64, 76-79, 80, 81, 311-312
populations at risk of deficiencies in, 76
protective effects of, 488
retinol equivalents, 47, 64, 68, 311
safety index, 518
supplements use, 315, 514, 516
see also b-Carotenes and other carotenoids; Retinol and other retinoids
Vitamin B1, see Thiamin
Vitamin B2,see Riboflavin
Vitamin B6,
biologic role of, 330, 337, 441
data sources on availability of, 47-48
human studies of, 337-338
intake trends, 66, 76-79, 81, 330-331
liver disease and, 337
populations at risk of deficiencies in, 76, 331
safety index, 518
Vitamin B12
data sources on availability of, 47-48
defective absorption of, 88
deficiencies, 216
intake trends, 67, 77-79, 81, 331
monitoring status, 81
nutritional status, 67
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
animal studies of, 332-334
atherosclerosis and, 333-334
availability trends, 53, 67, 75, 654
biologic role of, 329
cancer and, 9, 331-333, 338, 341, 488, 514, 658
colds and, 517
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data sources on availability of, 47-48, 51, 81
food sources of, 9, 67-68, 329, 341, 654, 658
fortification of foods with, 67, 75, 329, 654
human studies of, 331-332, 333
intake trends, 41, 67-68, 76-79, 81, 329
iron absorption and, 71, 77, 367, 368, 517
monitoring status, 63, 68, 81, 329, 331
nutritional status, 68, 76, 81, 329
populations at risk of deficiencies in, 68, 76
protective effects of, 9, 331-332, 341, 476, 488, 514, 515, 658
safety index, 518
serum cholesterol and, 515
Vitamin D
alcoholism and, 451
availability trends, 312
cancer and, 356
data availability on intakes, 64
1, 25-dihydroxycholcalciferol, 312, 316, 317, 318, 356, 390
fiber intake and, 302
fortification of foods with, 74, 312
human studies of, 316-317
hydroxycholecalciferols, 317, 318
intake trends, 312
mechanisms of action and interactions, 317-318, 357-358, 360
osteoporosis/osteomalacia and, 316-318, 322, 350, 353, 618
recommended intakes of, 680
renal disease and, 318
safety index, 518
skin synthesis of, 160
supplementation, 353
Vitamin E
animal studies of, 319-320
atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and, 320, 376
availability trends, 53, 64, 312, 654
cancer and, 318-320, 377, 379, 443, 658
CHD and, 514-515
data sources on availability of, 47-48
deficiency diseases, 320-321
human studies of, 318-319
interaction with vitamin K, 321
mechanisms of action, 320
protective effects of, 441, 476
safety index, 518
sucrose polyester and, 479
toxicity of, 321, 516-517, 518
Vitamin K
animal studies of, 321
availability trends, 312
biologic role of, 312
cancer and, 321
deficiency, 321-322
food sources of, 312
human studies of, 321
interaction of vitamin E with, 322
K1 (phylloquinone), 312, 321, 322
liver disease and, 321-322
malabsorption of, 321-322
toxicity, 321
Vitamins, food sources of, 28, 63;
see also specific vitamins
VLDL, see Very-low-density lipoproteins
VLDL cholesterol
apolipoproteins and, 168
carbohydrate intake and, 278
CHD and, 170-171
individual differences in, 170
lecithin and, 217
population differences in, 170
W
Waffles, 73
Washington
cancer in, 483
CHD in, 102
Water, softened, 73;
see also Drinking water
Water-soluble vitamins, see Biotin; Folacin; Niacin; Pantothenic acid; Riboflavin; Thiamin; Vitamin B6; Vitamin B12; Vitamin C
Weight, see Body weight
Weight-reduction dieting
age-sex trends in, 76
prevalence of, 82
Wernicke-Korsakoff's syndrome, 92, 334, 449, 450
Wheat bran, 278, 292, 298, 299, 301, 302
Wheat germ, 67
Wheat gluten, 42
Wheat starch, 280
Wheat straw, 295
Whole grains and whole-grain products, 8, 14, 18, 62, 64-67, 70, 71, 76, 80, 293, 301, 302, 312, 370, 381, 671, 675, 679;
see also Cereal grains and cereal grain products
Wilms's tumor, 393
Wilson's disease, 124
Women
CHD in, 445
dietary recommendations for, 671
fat intake trends, 54-55
nutrient deficiencies from alcoholism, 450
see also Sex differentials
World Health Organization
definitions of health and disease prevention, 99
dietary recommendations, 686
hypertension classifications, 107, 550
cirrhosis definition, 124
Global Oral Epidemiology Bank, 127
X
Xeroderma pigmentosum, 91
Xylitol, 279
Y
Yeast, 476
Yemenite Jews
diabetes mellitus in, 123
plasma lipids/lipoproteins and fat intake by, 180-181
Yogurt, 18, 69, 76, 207, 370, 675
Yugoslavia
bone fracture in, 351-352
cancer in, 421
CHD in, 100-101
serum cholesterol levels in, 163
Yusho disease, 479
Z
Zambia, dental caries in, 127
Zinc
alcohol intake and, 442, 450, 451
animal studies, 371-372
atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and, 370
bioavailability of, 71-72, 301, 301, 370
biologic role of, 370
cancer and, 334-336, 370-372, 380, 442, 514
clinical studies, 370-371
data sources on availability, 47-48, 51
diabetes mellitus and, 372
epidemiologic studies, 370-371
HDL cholesterol and, 370
hypertension and, 370, 390, 394
immunocompetence and, 372, 395, 517
interaction with other trace elements, 370, 371, 373, 379, 380, 390, 515
mutagenicity, 372
occupational exposures, 371
osteoarthritis and, 373
osteoporosis and, 372-373
safety index, 518
serum cholesterol and, 261, 370, 515
short-term tests of, 372
supplements, 370, 373, 514, 515
Zucchini, 297