— [Italy]

de Franchis et al. (2022)

RCT

Verify the effects of weaning (i.e., the introduction of solid foods in infants previously fed only with milk) using adult foods typical of Mediterranean diet on children’s eating habits

Inclusion: Healthy infants, stable clinical conditions, and feeding by mouth with human milk or formula

Exclusion: Infants either with associated comorbidities (including prematurity) or with low birth weight

18 pediatricians participated and each enrolled 10–15 infants between 4–6 mo of age (authors’ description of this is not consistent with reported sample size)

SES: NR

Education level: 31% (control) and 33% (intervention) with a degree or higher

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Maternal age: NR

Approached: 425

Eligible and enrolled: 394

Completed: 358

Baseline: 194

End: 177

Baseline: 200

End: 181

GeliS [Germany]

Hoffmann et al. (2021)

Prospective cluster RCT

Evaluate effect of antenatal lifestyle intervention on development and feeding practices

Inclusion: (a) pre-pregnancy BMI between 18.5 and 40.0 kg/m2, (b) singleton pregnancy, (c) age 18–43 yrs, (d) sufficient German language skills, and (e) stage of pregnancy before end of 12th wk of gestation

Exclusion: miscarriage, terminations, pregnancy complications interfering with intervention, and maternal death during the trial

71 participating maternal clinics and midwifery practices (intervention n = 39; control n = 32) recruited participants

Before 12th wk of gestation, pregnant women were invited by midwives or medical staff to participate

SES: NR

Education level: 42% vocational school, 42% academic high school and 16% general school

Race: NR

Ethnicity: 89% born in Germany

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 30 yrs pre-pregnancy

Approached: 2,286

Eligible and enrolled: 2,261

End: 1,998

Baseline: 1,139

End: 1,003

12 mo follow-up: 902

Baseline: 1,122

End: 995

12 mo follow-up: 881

Starting Early Program [United States]

Messito et al. (2020)

RCT

Determine impact of child obesity prevention intervention on maternal infant feeding practices, knowledge, and styles at 10 mo in low-income Hispanic families

Inclusion: Pregnant, Hispanic women ≥18 yrs, English/Spanish speaking, singleton uncomplicated pregnancy, intended to receive pediatric care at the study sites Women with diabetes, depression, or intrauterine growth restriction were not excluded

Exclusion: women with severe medical or psychiatric illness (e.g.,

Pregnant women who intended to receive pediatric care at the study sites Interested women were informed about the study, consented, and randomized at 32 wks of gestation

SES: NR

Education level: 31% (control) and 38% (intervention) had less than high school education

Race: NR

Ethnicity: 100%

Hispanic Language spoken: English and Spanish(percentage not specified)

Maternal age: 29 yrs (both intervention and control groups)

Approached: 1,263

Eligible: 933

Enrolled: 533

Completed: 412

Baseline: 266

End: 202
Note: the low-income urban site was in this group

Baseline: 267

End: 210

PROBIT [Italy]

Morandi et al. (2019)

RCT

Prevent overweight or obesity occurring at 2 yrs of life; improve feeding patterns during infancy

Inclusion: Healthy full-term newborns whose parents or guardians gave informed consent

Exclusion: Pre- or post-term birth or any congenital disorder, disease, or syndrome

Primary pediatricians registered in the district interested in research projects were mailed invitations to participate. Each pediatrician then selected 30 participants for enrollment from the practice.

SES: NR

Education level: NR [professional category was 4-scale of 1–9]

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Maternal age: NR

Approached: all pediatricians in Veneto region interested in research

Eligible: 22 pediatricians leading to 569 newborns

Enrolled: 562

End: 468

Baseline: 267 newborns; 11 pediatricians 1st yr well

visit: 251 2nd yr well

visit (end): 216

Baseline: 295 newborns; 11 pediatricians 1st yr well

visit: 278 2nd yr

well visit (end): 252

Grow2 Gether [United States]

Fiks et al. (2017)

RCT

Block allocation

Test a Facebook peer-group intervention for low-income mothers to foster behaviors promoting healthy infant growth and preventing obesity

Inclusion: Women whose pre-pregnancy BMI >25 kg/m2) and were Medicaid insured; >18 yrs old and English speaking; singleton pregnancy between 20–32 wks at the time of enrollment, owned a smartphone with a data plan

Exclusion: Women with a major mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia) or other severe morbidity (e.g., renal failure)

Mothers recruited from two high-volume obstetric clinics

SES: 78% annual household income <$15,000; 45% employed

Education level: 51% high school graduates

Race: 88% Black

Ethnicity: 2% Latina, 7% Asian or American Indian

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 27 yrs

Approached: 319

Eligible: 115

Enrolled: 111

Completed run-in period and were randomized: 87

Completed: 85

Baseline: 43

End: 43

6 mo follow-up: 43

9 mo follow-up: 34

Baseline: 44

End: 42

6 mo follow-up: 42

9 mo follow-up: 37

Growing Leaps and Bounds [United States]

Schroeder et al. (2015)

Cluster-stratified RCT

A pediatric office-based intervention was implemented following a randomized, controlled design, aimed at improving child feeding practices and growth patterns and ultimately reducing risk for overweight and obesity later in life

Inclusion: all healthy newborns with ≥2,000 g body weight and who were not requiring specialized medical or nutritional care and discharged home within 5 days after birth

Exclusion: NR

Four Johns Hopkins Community Physicians centers were randomized to control (n = 2) or intervention (n = 2); two urban sites and 2 suburban sites; one of the urban sites was low income

SES: NR

Education level: NR

Race: 48% Black, 35% White

Ethnicity: 2% Hispanic, 2% Asian, 6%, other

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: NR

Intervention group had higher number of African American caregivers, higher unemployment rate, lower household income, lower completed education level, and less home ownership than the control group

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 292

Completed: 232

Baseline: 134

End: 112

Baseline: 144

End: 110

— [United States]

French et al. (2012)

3-arm cluster RCT

Evaluate the effect of 2 anticipatory guidance styles (maternal focused [MOMS] and infant focused [Ounce of Prevention]) directed at mothers of infants aged newborn to 6 mo on their infant feeding behaviors at 1 yr compared with routine advice as outlined in Bright Futures (BF)

Inclusion: English-speaking mother, healthy full-term infant, lives with biological mother, and infant aged 2 mo or younger

Exclusion: History of NICU stay, gestation less than 37 wks, chronic disease, foster placement, or known genetic disorder

Potential participants were identified by screening clinic schedules for infants 2 mo of age or younger and by screening of waiting families by research staff; then, research staff obtained written informed consent and described the study in depth

Reporting by trial arm (BF, MOMS, OP)

SES: NR

Education level: 19%/36%/34% < high school

Race: 61%/ 20%/74% Black; 24%/66%/21% White

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 24/23/23 yrs (mean)

Approached: 11 clinics

Eligible: 3 clinics

Enrolled: 292 mother–infant dyads

Successfully completed: 57%

Intervention Group 1 (1 clinic)

Baseline: MOMS-101; OP- 1,010 participants

End: 64

Follow-up: NR

Intervention Group 2 (1 clinic)

Baseline: 101 participants

End: 61

Follow-up: NR

(1 clinic)

Baseline: 104 participants

End: 66

Follow-up: NR

TARGet Kids! [Canada]

Maguire et al. (2010)

Pragmatic RCT

Determine whether an office-based, educational intervention for parents of 9-mo-old children could reduce bottle use and iron depletion at 2 yrs of age

Inclusion: Parents of healthy infants 9 mo. of age who were attending a routine, 9-mo health maintenance visit with their primary care pediatrician

Parents of ~9 mo old infants attending routine health maintenance visit were approached for participation from a 3-phy-sician (Drs Jacobson, Peer, and Taylor),

Reporting by Intervention%/ Control %

SES: NR

Education level: 86%/89% college education

Race: 5%/5% Black; 71%/70% White

Ethnicity: 9%/15% Asian; 14%/11%

Approached: 301

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 251

Completed: NR

Baseline: 129

End: NR

Follow-up (2 years): 102

Baseline: 122

End: NR

Follow-up (2 years): 99

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: NR

ECE

EniM [Spain]

Roset-Salla et al. (2016)

RCT

Evaluate the effectiveness of an educational program on healthy alimentation, carried out in day-care centers and aimed at the parents of children from 1 to 2 yrs of age, regarding the acquisition of healthy eating habits among themselves and their children

Inclusion: Children 1–2 yrs of age, other factors not reported

Exclusion: Children still exclusively breastfeeding or whose parents were not responsible for their alimentation, children with special diets due to chronic diseases (such as celiac disease, food intolerances or allergies, inflammatory bowel disease), parents with language difficulties, parents unable to attend

All parents at the participating day care centers were invited to information meetings with pamphlets and posters. No details given on how day care centers were recruited.

SES: NR

Education level: 55% University education

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR (but primarily Spanish)

Maternal age: 35 yrs (for both parents combined)

Approached/potential sample: 581 children

Eligible: 206 children and 195 parents

Enrolled: 149 children and 139 parents

Successfully completed: NR

Baseline: 111 children and 103 parents

End: 75 children and 67 parents

Follow-up: NR

Baseline: 81 children and 78 parents

End: 74 children and 72 parents

Follow-up: NR

— [Belgium]

Verbestel et al. (2014)

Cluster RCT

Evaluate the effects of a 1-yr family-based healthy lifestyle intervention implemented through day-care centers on toddlers’ BMI z-scores and reported activity and dietary-related behaviors

Inclusion: Belgian toddlers aged 9-24 mo in child care centers located in low-SES and medium-SES communities

Exclusion: Children classified as underweight or obese using BMI z-scores

Six communities chosen and measured ordinally by SES status resulting in recruiting 2 child care centers per SES status Parents were invited to enroll their child into the study with completed informed consent

Values reported for children

SES: 17% low SES

Education level: NR

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language: NR

Maternal age: NR

Approached/potential sample: 404 children, 137 day cares

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 203 children, 70 day care centers

Successfully completed: 191 children (included in analyses)

Follow-up (12 months): 156 children

Baseline: NR

End: 126 children

Follow-up: 100 children

Baseline: NR

End: 65 children

Follow-up: 56 children

— [United States]

Clark et al. (2009)

Experimental Design

Determine child care providers’ infant feeding knowledge, attitude, and behavior changes after viewing the infant feeding website. Determine the effectiveness of the website and bilingual educational materials

Inclusion: NR

Exclusion: NR

Called and mailed postcards to child care centers with consent for each phase of the intervention Instructions mailed to participants on how to access and take the online survey

Reported by Intervention/Control

SES: NR

Education level: NR

Race: 4%/13% Black; 83%/74% White

Ethnicity: 4%/0% Asian, 9%/13% Hispanic/Latino, 0%/0% American Indian

Language: 100% English; 0% Spanish

Maternal age: 21–29: 35%/20% 30–39: 26%/27% 40–49: 26%/20% 50 or older: 13%/33%

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 48 (child care providers)

Successfully completed: 38

Baseline: 23

End: 8 total were lost between the I and C groups

(does not specify how many from each group)

Follow-up: 6

Baseline: 15

End: 8 total were lost between the I and C groups

(does not specify how many from each group)

Follow-up: 9

Cooperative Extension

WIC

SMS Intervention [United States]

Macchi et al. (2022)

Multisite RCT—pilot

Test the effect of a weekly text message (SMS) intervention for improving feeding practices on infant intake of energy, nutrients, and specific food groups

Inclusion: Caregiver age 18 yrs and older, owner of a mobile phone with unrestricted SMS capability, responsible for infant care, and willing to participate for the full study duration

Exclusion: Infants with special diets, infants with limited mobility, pre-term birth (<37 wks), small or large for gestational age (birthweight <10th or >90th percentile), inability to consent to participate, unwillingness to be randomized, and not being able to read

Caregivers participating in WIC program in Puerto Rico (2) and Hawai’i (4) were recruited

Reported by Intervention/Control

SES: NR

Education level: 29%/38% college or higher

Race: 4%/4% Black; 10%/14% White

Ethnicity: 17%/13% Asian; 3%/2% Native Hawaiian; 5%/2% Pacific Islander; 56%/58% Hispanic; 6%/6% Mixed/Unknown

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 26/28

Approached: NR

Eligible: 202

Enrolled: 202

Completed: 170

Gibby: final analysis 80 as only included intervention group

Baseline: 102

End: 84

Follow-up: 22% loss to follow-up overall

FFQ available for 79 dyads (Macchi)

Baseline: 100

End: 86

Follow-up: 22% loss to follow-up overall

FFQ available for 84 dyads (Macchi)

Harris et al. (2020)

RCT

Examine the effect of a responsive parenting intervention on mother-reported child emotional overeating, explore whether effects are mediated by mother-reported use of food to soothe child distress.

Inclusion: Primiparous mothers with healthy, term, singleton newborns; English-speaking (Harris); ≥20 yrs of age (Harris).

Exclusion: If there was a plan for the newborn to be adopted or move from Central Pennsylvania within 3 yrs, if a prenatal ultrasound demonstrated evidence of intrauterine growth retardation, if the newborn’s birth weight was <2500 grams, or if either the mother or newborn had significant health issues that would affect study participation

Reported as Intervention/Control

SES: income of $50,000 or more: 90%/75%

Education level: college or higher degree: 72%/84%

Race: 93%/96% White

Ethnicity: 3%/2% Hispanic

Language spoken: 100% English speaking

Maternal age: 29/30

Screened: 3,276

Enrolled: 316

Randomized: 291

Completed: 279 (completed 3–4 week visit)

12-mo. follow-up: 250

2-yr follow-up: 243

Baseline: 145

End (completed 1-year visit): 125

Harris n = 105 individuals

Baseline: 146

End (completed 1-year visit): 125

Harris n = 102 individuals

Hohman et al. (2020) (SIBSIGHT study)

RCT

Examine birth-order differences in dietary intake between firstborn (FB) and second born (SB) siblings; determine whether a responsive parenting (RP) intervention modified birth-order effects on diet

Reported as intervention FB/SB; control FB/SB

SES: income of $50,000 or more 89%/89%; 77%/83%

Education: College grad 75%/75%; 77%/77%

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Maternal age: 30/32; 28/31

Screened: 138

Enrolled: 117

Completed 1-yr clinic visit: 117

Sibling pairs

6 mon = 97

12 mon = 100

Firstborn-RP

Baseline: 57

End:NR

Secondborn siblings of RP group

Baseline: 57

End: NR

At 12 months: 48 total for both RP groups

Firstborn control group

Baseline: 60

End:NR

Secondborn siblings of control group

Baseline: 60

End: NR

At 12 months: 52 total for both control groups

Savage et al. (2018)

RCT

Examine the effect of a responsive parenting (RP) intervention designed for obesity prevention on parents’ infant feeding practices in the first yr after birth

Reported as Intervention/Control

SES: Reporting annual household incomes above $75,000 50%/50%

Education: college and postgrad 62%/63%

Race: Black 7%/5% White 87%/91%

Ethnicity: NH/PI 0.7%/0%

Asian: 4%/3%

Other: 1.4%/0.7%

Hispanic/Latino 9%/5%

Maternal age: 29/29 years

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 279

Completed at 52 weeks: 253

Baseline: 140

End: NR

Baseline: 139

End: NR

Hohman et al. (2017)

RCT

Determine whether a responsive parenting (RP) intervention affects infant dietary patterns

Reported as Intervention/Control

SES: $50,000 annual household income or above 83%/68%

Education: college and postgrad 66%/65%

Race: Black 5.4%/4.6%

White 89.2%/92.3%

Ethnicity: NH/PI 0.8%/0%

Asian 3.1%/3.1%

Other 1.6%/0%

Hispanic 7%/6%

Maternal age 29/29 years

Baseline: 145

End (completed 1-yr visit): 125

Final analysis: 129

Baseline: 146

End (completed 1-yr visit): 125

Final analysis: 130

Savage et al. (2016)

RCT

Examine the effect of a responsive parenting (RP) intervention on infant weight gain between birth and 28 wks and overweight status at age 1 yr

SES: 72% fully employed

Education: NR

Race: Non-Hispanic 93%

White 88%

Ethnicity: NR

Maternal age: NR

Approached with written consent: 316

Randomized: 291

Completed first visit: 279

Completed at 52 weeks: 253

Baseline: NR

End: NR

Baseline: NR

End: NR

Family Spirit Nurture [United States]

Rosenstock et al. (2021)

RCT

Assess the impact of a brief home-visiting approach on sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption, responsive parenting, and infant feeding practices, and optimal growth through 12 mo postpartum

Inclusion: Maternal age 13 yrs or older, self-reported race/ethnicity, mother to an infant <14 wks, and residence within 50 miles of the Northern Navajo Medical Center, located in Shiprock, New Mexico

Exclusion: Unable to fully participate or were unwilling to undergo randomization

Mothers were recruited from the local pediatric clinic and WIC program as well as word of mouth

SES: 84% not employed, 69% received help with groceries, 55% receiving SNAP or EBT, 45% receive WIC, 2% receive TANF, 55% report one or more financial hardships, 35% water insecure, 23% low or and very low food security

Education level: 50% completed education beyond high school

Race/ethnicity: 100% Navajo

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 27 yrs

Assessed for Eligibility: 369

Eligible: 151

Enrolled: 134

Completed: NR

Follow up at 12 months: 123

Baseline: 68

End: NR

Completed at least one follow-up: 66

Baseline: 66

End: NR

Completed at least one follow-up: 63

— [United States]

LoRe et al. (2019)

Matched-pair RCT

Determine the efficacy of an interactive, home visiting curriculum tailored to low-socioeconomic status families in improving parental knowledge of pediatric nutrition and healthy lifestyle

Inclusion: Parents at least 18 yrs old, have a child aged 13–16 mo without significant cognitive or physical impairments, and have a household income level below 200% of the federal poverty line

Exclusion: Parents with a graduate or professional degree, did not have legal custody or lived with child, or did not spend at least 2 full days per wk with child

Participants were recruited through postings at day care centers, libraries, health clinics, local stores, public transportation, and community organizations serving low-income populations

Intervention/Control

SES: all low-income (<200% of federal poverty line), >80% on WIC or LINK (not defined) 51%/47% employed

Education level: 73%/78% less than associates degree

Race: African American: 86%/82% non-Hispanic

White: 4%/4%

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 29 yrs (both groups)

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 104

Completed: NR

Baseline: 55

Baseline: 49

BLISS [New Zealand]

Morison et al. (2018)

2-arm RCT

Determine whether food variety and perceived food preferences differ in infants following baby-led instead of traditional spoon-feeding approaches to introducing solids

Inclusion: Book into the birthing unit at Queen Mary Maternity Hospital <34 wks gestation; speak English or Te Reo Māori; plan to live in the Dunedin, New Zealand,

All pregnant women booked in the Dunedin hospital were invited to participate

Reported by Intervention/Control

SES: NR

Education level: 45%/53% university

Race: NR

Ethnicity: 79%/84% New Zealand European, 14%/10% Maori or Pacific, 7%/6% Asian

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 31 yrs (both groups)

Approached: 1,900

Potentially Eligible: 1,061

Eligible: 214

Enrolled: 206

Completed: 166

Baseline: 105

End (24 mo): 88

Baseline: 101

End (24 mo): 78

Williams Erickson et al. (2018)

2-arm RCT

Determine the impact of modified BLW (i.e., Baby-Led Introduction to Solids; BLISS) on food and nutrient intake at 7–24 mo of age

area until their child is at least 2 yrs; and is 16 yrs of age or older

Exclusion: Not living locally, mother ≤16 years, booked after 34 wks gestation; congenital abnormality, physical condition, or intellectual disability, likely to affect feeding or growth is identified

— [France]

Remy et al. (2013)

Experimental design

Compare learning mechanisms to increase vegetable acceptance in infants at complementary feeding, namely repeated exposure (RE), flavor–flavor learning (FFL), and flavor–nutrient learning (FNL); measure the stability of the learning effect; and examine the impact of infant’s feeding history on vegetable acceptance

Inclusion: Age between 4 and 8 mo, introduction of complementary foods was started at >2 wk and <2 mo before the start of the study, no health problems or food allergies at the beginning of the study, and gestational age of 36 wks or more

Exclusion: NR

Parents were recruited by leaflets or posters distributed in health professionals consulting rooms, pharmacies, and day-care centers

SES: NR

Education level: NR

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: NR

Approached: 123

Eligible: 100

Enrolled: NR

Completed: 95

FFL: Baseline: NR

End: 31

2-wk follow-up: 31

3-mo follow-up: 30

6-mo follow-up: 30

FNL Baseline: NR

End: 32

2-wk follow-up: 32

3-mo follow-up: 31

6-mo follow-up: 30

RE Baseline: NR

End: 32

2-wk follow-up,

3-mo follow-up,

6-mo follow-up: all 32

— [United Kingdom]

Watt et al. (2009)

RCT

Assess whether monthly home visits from trained volunteers could improve infant feeding practices at age 12 mo, a RCT was carried out in two disadvantaged inner city London boroughs

Inclusion: Women from Registrar General occupational classes II-V (nonprofessional); babies born ≥37 wks; birth weight >2,500 g; singletons; women able to understand English; and residents in the study area. (Eligibility was changed to all new mothers due to recruiting difficulties)

Exclusion: Women <17 yrs old; infants diagnosed with a serious

Women were recruited from baby clinics located in more disadvantaged neighborhoods across Camden and Islington where Surestart programs existed

Intervention/control

SES: 52%/51% receive income support/jobseeker’s allowance

Education level: 39%/33% left full time education (<16 years)

Race: NR

Ethnicity: 50% White

Language spoken: 100% English

Maternal age: (at child birth) 29/31 yrs

Approached: 542

Eligible: 381

Enrolled: 312

Completed: 212

Baseline: 157

End (3 mo): 133

12-mo follow-up: 115

18-mo follow-up: 104

Baseline: 155

End (3 mo): 155

12-mo follow-up: 124

18-mo follow-up: 108

— [New Zealand]

Rapson et al. (2022)

RCT: parallel group study

Test whether exposure to vegetables only during the first 4 wks of complementary feeding increases later vegetable acceptance compared with a control group receiving fruit and vegetables

Inclusion: Born ≥37 wk, of normal growth/ weight, had not started complementary feeding, and had no known food allergies/medical conditions

Exclusion: Starting complementary feeding before the trial commenced, development of medical concerns (e.g., allergies, reflux), wanting to follow baby-led weaning and control over the types of first foods fed, concerns regarding heel prick, too busy

NR

SES: NR

Education level: 90% university or higher

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NZ European and other 91%; Maori and Pacific Island 6%; Other 8%

Language: NR

Maternal age: 33 yrs

Approached: 282

Eligible: 214

Enrolled: 154

Successfully completed (including follow-up): 108

Baseline: 61

End: 56

Baseline: 56

End: 52

— [United States]

Johnson et al. (2021)

Cross-sectional observational study

Determine whether reducing bitterness by adding small amounts of sugar or salt would alter infant acceptance of kale purées

Inclusion: Caregivers 18–51 yrs of age, could read and speak English, lived within 75 miles of the Children’s Eating Laboratory in Aurora, CO; infants between 6–24 mo of age, term (≥37 wk gestation), had experienced at least 1 complementary food, and did not have food allergies or genetic or metabolic disorders that could affect food intake

Exclusion: NR

A university listserv, flyers posted on campus and in the community, posts on social media, using a listserv created from previous studies in which participants had agreed to be recontacted, and participant referrals between September 2018 and April 2019

SES: household income level > $60,570 (51%)

Education level: 90% college grad/post grad

Race: 82% White, 18% other

Ethnicity: 8% Hispanic/Latin, 92% non-Hispanic White

Language: NR

Parental age: 94% were female with 74% of all parents aged 30–49 yrs

Approached: 113

Eligible: 109

Enrolled: 109

Successfully completed: 106 (analyzed)

NR

No comparator group

— [South Korea]

Ra (2021)

Pre–post test design with nonequivalent control group

Evaluate a mobile-based maternal feeding education program for overweight prevention in infants based on breastfeeding attitude, self-efficacy, and duration, recognition of hunger and satiety cues, and knowledge regarding providing solids foods

Inclusion: Mothers who gave consent to participate, primary caregivers; infants born >37 wks and weighing >2,500 g at birth.

Exclusion: Mothers with twin infants, infants with congenital deformities (e.g., cleft palate) or other health issues related to feeding difficulties and if mother participated in other feeding education programs for overweight prevention in infants within 1 yr of this study

First time pregnant mothers with more than 36 weeks gestational age were recruited from two obstetrics and gynecology clinics

Reported by intervention/control

SES: 73%/79% perceived SES as middle-income (not defined)

Education level: 93%/71% 2 or 4-yr college

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 32/31 yrs

Approached: 33

Eligible: 33

Enrolled: 33

Completed: 29

Baseline: 19

End: 15

Baseline: 14

End: 14

— [France]

Tournier et al. (2021)

Pilot experimental intervention with prospective follow-up

Test if providing extended recommendations (compared to current national recommendations) to mothers when their infant was between 8 and 15 mo old would result in a higher exposure to textured foods and a higher food texture acceptance by their infant

Inclusion: Parents >18 yrs old. Children in good health (no food allergy, tube feeding, chronic disease, or gastroesophageal reflux requiring medication), >37 wks and >3 kg

Exclusion: Children introduced to complementary foods before 4 mo or after 6 mo, using the baby-led weaning method, and those already involved in another study on eating behavior

Flyers distributed in maternity wards, pediatric offices, day care centers, an internal consumer database via a local recruitment agency

Reported by Intervention/Control

SES: NR

Education level: 23%/23% mothers with HS diploma at most

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language: NR

Maternal age: 32/32 yrs (mean)

Approached: 69

Eligible: 64

Enrolled (actual start of intervention): 61

Successfully completed at 15 mo follow-up: 60

Baseline: 31

End: NR

Baseline: 30

End: NR

Early Food for Future Health [Norway]

Helle et al. (2019b)

RCT

Evaluate the effects of an eHealth intervention on parental feeding practices and infant eating behaviors

Inclusion: Parents eligible to participate in the study if they had a 3–5 mo old infant, were literate in Norwegian, and responsible for providing food to their infant

Exclusion: NR

Parents were recruited through Facebook advertising and through emailing Norwegian municipalities child health clinics

Intervention/control at baseline

SES: NR

Education level: 83%/80% college/ university degree

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: 7%/8% not Norwegian as native language

Maternal age: 31/30 yrs

Approached: 1,010

Eligible: 960

Enrolled: 715

Completed T2 (child age 12 mo): 455

Completed T3 (child age 24 mo, 1 yr of cessation of intervention): 295

Baseline: 360

End T2: 236–269

End T3: 152–178

Baseline: 358

End T2: 219–264

End T3: 143–165

— [United Kingdom]

Coulthard et al. (2014)

Quasi-experimental

Examine the effectiveness of different vegetable exposure methods over a 9-day period in two groups of infants: those introduced to solids prior to the age of 5.5 mo, and those introduced after 5.5 mo as is recommended

Inclusion: Infants had to be healthy, full term, had been breast fed from birth and had been breastfed exclusively until the age of introduction of complementary feeding

Exclusion: Infants who had eaten peas, were not exclusively breast fed until complementary feeding, had been weaned earlier than anticipated or were being weaned directly onto finger foods (baby-led weaning)

Parent–infant dyads were recruited from children’s centers, playgroups, and post-natal groups

SES: NR

Education level: 16 yrs

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: early introduction: 31 yrs;

later introduction: 34 yrs

Approached: 77

Eligible: 60

Enrolled: 60

Completed: NR

[early introduction] Baseline: 29

End: NR

[late introduction] Baseline: 31

End: NR

— [Norway]

Beinert et al. (2017)

RCT

Examine the long-term effect on toddlers’ fruit and vegetable intake and sweet beverages, and skepticism for new food, of a 2-day intervention on how to prepare homemade food for toddlers

Inclusion: NR

Exclusion: NR

Parents were recruited through health care centers

Reported by Intervention/Control

SES: NR

Education level: 89%/80% some college or more

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 30/31 yrs

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 110

Completed: NR

Baseline: 56

End: NR

15 mo: 44

24 mo: 40

Baseline: 54

End: NR

15 mo: 27

24 mo: 24

— [Norway]

Øverby et al. (2017)

RCT

Evaluate if a two-day course for parents on nutrition and applied baby food preparation influenced child’s intake of homemade foods, lipid concentration, and vitamin D status

Inclusion: NR

Exclusion: NR

Parents attending 6-mo checkup at four health care clinics were invited to participate

Intervention group/control group

SES: NR

Education level: maternal (17 years or more) 87%/ 90%

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 30/31 yrs (mean)

Approached: 143

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 110

End: 59

Baseline: 56

End (12-mo follow-up): 39

Baseline: 54

End (12-mo follow-up): 20

— [Netherlands]

Barends et al. (2014)

Longitudinal intervention study

Follow-up study to examine whether the group that started weaning with vegetables continued eating more vegetables than the group that started weaning with fruits.

Inclusion: Met criteria of previous 19-day study (same study cohort).

Exclusion: NR

Recruited for this follow-up study via a previous 19-day intervention study; parents completed informed consent at baseline

Reported by intervention (veggie) vs comparator (fruit):

SES: (reported mean or median) NR

Education level: High 40%/48%

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language: NR

Maternal age: 31/32 yrs

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 101 parent–infant pairs

Successfully completed: NR

Baseline: 51

End: NR

Follow-up: NR

Baseline: 50

End: NR

Follow-up: NR

Barends et al. (2013)

Longitudinal intervention study

Investigated the effects of repeated exposure to either vegetables or fruits on an infant’s vegetable and fruit acceptance during the first 18 days of weaning

Inclusion: Healthy infants between 4 and 7 mo old, who were not being weaned yet

Exclusion: Infants with known food allergies, swallowing or digestion problems, or other medical problems that could influence the ability to eat

Recruited from the area of Wageningen and Almere in the Netherlands where both the research locations were via local newspapers, maternity or infant welfare centers, postnatal care groups, and a mailing to subscribers of babyinfo. nl (a Dutch advertisement website that gives a box with free products for subscribers expecting a baby)

Green bean group/artichoke/apple/plum

SES: NR

Education level: High 58%/44%/ 38%/63%

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language: NR

Maternal age: 31/30/21/32

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 101 parent–infant pairs

Successfully completed: NR

Green bean group/artichoke/apple/plum

Baseline: 24/27/24 /24

End: NR

Follow-up: NR

NR

— [United States]

Mennella et al. (2008)

Experimental

First study: examine the effects of repeated dietary experience with either one fruit or a variety of fruits on infants’ acceptance of pears and green beans Second study: determine whether different dietary variety experiences affect infants’ acceptance of the target vegetables

Inclusion: Healthy infants with at least 2 wks of experience eating cereal or fruit from a spoon and little experience with the target fruits and vegetables

Exclusion: NR

Mothers with infants ages 4–9 mo were recruited from advertisements in local newspapers and from WIC programs in Philadelphia, PA.

SES: NR

Education level: NR

Race: 55% Black; 30% White

Ethnicity: 3% Hispanic/Latino, 12% other or mixed

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: 26 yrs

Approached: NR

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 74 infants total (Study 1: 39 infants; Study 2: 35)

Successfully completed: 60

Values here include both studies.

Study 1: Baseline: 20 infants

End: NR

Study 2: Baseline: green bean group (GBG) 11; between meal (BM)–within meal (WM) 12

End: NR

Study 1: Baseline: 19 infants

End: NR

Study 2: Baseline: BM Variety 12

End: NR

— [Germany]

Koehler et al. (2007)

RCT

Examine the effects of nutritional counseling for the infant diet focused on complementary feeding and total diet by use of dietary scores

Inclusion: Mothers speak German, be available by telephone, and provide written informed consent of participation; infants were in good health, full-term birth (>37

Mothers were recruited and enrolled from maternity wards and through nationwide health insurance company

SES: NR

Education level: 61% “high”

Race: NR

Ethnicity: NR

Language spoken: NR:

Maternal age: 67% 30 yrs or older

Approached: NR

Eligible: 727

Consented: 235

Enrolled: 183

End: NR

intervention group (IG)1 Baseline: 55

IG2 Baseline: 40

IG3 Baseline: 47

Baseline: 41

Exclusion: NR

— [Canada]

Verrall et al. (2006)

Prospective process evaluation

Evaluate innovative communication strategies promoting iron nutrition for infants at risk for iron deficiency anemia in a northern Aboriginal community.

Inclusion: NR

Exclusion: NR

Survey/questionnaires responders post intervention recruited from telephone list provided by health care offices.

SES: NR

Education level: NR

Race: NR

Ethnicity: 100% Cree

Language spoken: NR

Maternal age: NR

Approached: 70

Eligible: NR

Enrolled: 45

Completed: 45

Baseline: 45

End: 45

NR

Zheng et al. (2022)

Hesketh et al. (2020)

Spence et al. (2014)

Cameron et al. (2014)

Spence et al. (2013)

Campbell et al. (2013)

Intervention (4 to 18 mo): educational strategies including brief didactic sessions, use of group discussion and peer support, exploration of perceived barriers, use of visual and written messages, follow-up delivery of messages mail-outs. All educational concepts will be developed iteratively, that is, messages will be repeated and expanded upon over the course of the intervention.

Follow-up (2 and 3.5 yrs): parents completed questionnaire before home visit, researchers visited each participant’s home to collect child anthropometric data, physical activity data, and collect questionnaires. Dietary recalls were conducted at unscheduled times following the home visit.

Number of contacts/duration of visits: six 2-hr sessions delivered at 3-mo intervals during the regular meeting time of the first-time parents’ group

Duration of full intervention: 15 mo; follow-up occurred at 2 yrs and 3.5 yrs post-intervention

Mothers were encouraged to cook in a tasty way and to taste food before offering it to the kid. They also received a reinforcing message on nutritional education toward the Mediterranean diet at each pediatric visit.

Multifaceted: education; counseling; tasting opportunities

Adherence described and may give a sense of intensity.

At well-child visits, care professionals used a booklet which contained illustrations of parents and children performing desired behaviors and age-appropriate items.

Intervention consisted of building a positive relationship, risk assessment, introducing booklet, asking parents what booklet items they would like to focus on, providing that information.

Multifaceted: counseling; education

Parents were invited to complete eHealth module 1 mo before 18 and 24 mo well-child visit. The module included tailored advice and developing an implementation-intention plan. The plan was discussed with the care team at the well-child visit. Follow-up email with advice was sent.

Multifaceted component intervention: educational (group and individual); counseling

The first part of the session was led by the dietitian focusing on nutritional issues and the second part was led by the social worker focusing on parent-child feeding relationships.

Each part incorporated psycho-educational material through discussion and films, in addition to actual exercises and real-time feeding practice.

Outcome data collected via questionnaire at 12 mo of age.

Dodd et al. (2014)

Follow-up: conducted 18 mo after birth, after ethics approval, and after obtaining informed parental consent.

Duration of full intervention: NR

Magarey et al. (2016)

Daniels et al. (2015)

Daniels et al. (2014)

Daniels et al. (2013)

Daniels et al. (2012)

Intervention included interactive group sessions (12) co-led by a dietitian and psychologist and included two modules (Module 1: establishing solid feeding including variety and texture, neutral repeated exposure to healthy foods, limited exposure to noncore foods and realistic expectations of growth and nutritional requirements; Module 2: promote development of a positive feeding environment and managing toddler eating behavior in the context of increased autonomy. Encourages structured food choice and eating pattern, positive role modeling and avoidance of coercion, use of rewards, and emotional feeding).

Multifaceted: education (group interactive sessions); counseling

Module 1 was 3 mo in length.

Single intervention; counseling

Duration of visits: NR

Duration of full intervention: Feb 2011‒July 2012

Mothers determined precise timing of visitation

Pediatricians were trained on focused negotiation skills based on concepts of motivational intervening and epidemiology of health consequences of excess weight gain. Pediatricians led the group parenting skills training workshops.

Multifaceted: education; counseling

Multifaceted: educational; counseling

Duration of full intervention: 4 mo

Test days had at least 1 day in between them and no more than 3 and began 2–5 days after baseline. Each child received 6–8 exposires of the root veggie purée with added apple flavor alternating with 6–8 exposures of purée with nothing added. Each exposure included 100 g of purée with an additional 100 g if the child wanted.