Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise (2024)

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Summary Ocean acoustics1—the study of sound in the ocean and how it travels, interacts with, and is affected by its underwater surroundings—is a growing and critical field. Applications can be found in defense, offshore energy production, national security, environmental monitoring, climate science, exploration and mapping, and fundamental ocean science. In contrast to light, sound travels with less attenuation over great distances in the ocean, making it an effective tool for probing the ocean environment. Ocean sounds are generated by natural phenomena (e.g., animals, volcanoes, earthquakes) and humans, both intentionally (e.g., active sonar, echo sounders) and as a by-product of other activity (e.g., shipping, construction). Because this field is multidisciplinary, it may be housed in a diversity of departments within higher education institutions, ranging from physics to engineering and oceanography, among others. Knowledge of mathematics, natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology) and engineering is integral to it. Content in or related to ocean acoustics or acoustics can be found in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer engineering, civil engineering, computer science, biology, physics, aerospace engineering, oceanography, ocean engineering, geophysics, and marine science departments at institutions of higher education throughout the country. Careers within ocean acoustics are vital for the national security and defense, economic, and environmental sectors. Within these career paths, employees range from highly trained, specialized researchers to technical workers requiring focused operational education and training requirements. The workforce covers issues ranging from military applications to issues of port security, commercial shipping, oil and gas exploration, renewable energy, commercial fisheries, oceanographic research, and other non- defense research. Figure S-1 shows some examples of the career paths and trajectory of formal education from the vocational/A.S. level through the Ph.D. level. The committee identified these examples of careers in research and development and technician/analyst pathways through information gathering and personal experience. Figure S-1 also shows a military career pathway because of the specialized training some members receive related to ocean acoustics. For example, the U.S. Navy (USN) has enlisted ratings, such as Sonar Technician, that require knowledge of ocean acoustics concepts. In addition to experience with such concepts, USN is a highly diverse organization, and targeting members leaving the service can provide the ocean acoustic workforce with skilled, experienced, and diverse employees. Both the multidisciplinary nature of ocean acoustic education and the different types of positions have proved challenging for workforce development as the field grows to meet future demands. This report explores existing educational challenges and opportunities and presents recommendations for future training and education needs for an expanding workforce that continues to meet critical national security demands and increasing opportunities within the blue economy. The Office of Naval Research (ONR) sponsored the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (the National Academies) to form an ad hoc consensus committee on Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise (see Appendix A for committee member biosketches). The committee’s task (see Box 1-1) was to examine the state of ocean acoustics education; assess the anticipated demand for expertise over the next decade; identify competencies required across higher education and professional training programs to fulfill that demand; and present strategies to raise the profile of careers in ocean acoustics to increase awareness, recruitment, and retention of a diverse workforce. 1 Many concepts of education, workforce needs, and gaps presented in this report are not specific to ocean acoustics and can be expanded to other areas of underwater acoustics, including freshwater. Prepublication Copy 1 

FIGURE S-1 A sample of ocean acoustics careers in research and development and technician/analyst pathways. NOTE: Job titles are listed as examples of the types of positions available with different levels of ocean acoustics education. The military circle represents ratings or career pathways within the military. The double-sided arrows indicate that military members can pursue continued education while on active duty, leave the military to continue education, or enter the workforce at different levels and also capture civilians entering the military with different degrees/workforce experience. 2 Prepublication Copy 

Summary 3 The committee reviewed reports on U. S. ocean acoustics research and education as a starting point. Several recommendations from these reports (see Tables 1-1 and 1-2) are still relevant, and the committee also found areas where the changing landscape of the workforce has new needs related to education and expertise. Building upon these studies, the committee commissioned a survey on Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise to gain insights into the state of ocean acoustics education programs, workforce opportunities, and future needs. The survey was designed to reach a large portion of the ocean acoustics community, but completion was voluntary, and respondents could skip questions if they did not have specific information (e.g., student enrollment numbers) available. Finally, the committee held several information-gathering panels about higher education programs, experiences of recent graduate and early-career professionals, needs of the workforce, and outreach methods used by other STEM fields. These sessions allowed the committee to have in-depth conversations with individuals on ocean acoustics education and expertise. Survey results, information-gathering panels, and committee members’ own knowledge and experience were used to develop this report on the state of ocean acoustics education and training programs (see Chapter 3), needs of the workforce (see Chapter 4), and recruitment of students to higher education programs and prospective employees (see Chapter 5). Due to the voluntary nature of the survey, the results may not have been entirely reflective of the ocean acoustics community or the state of higher education and training. Therefore, the committee used findings from the panels to augment the survey results. Chapter 1 provides further details on the survey development and distribution, and Appendix B presents the full report of survey findings. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE LEADING TO THE STATE OF EDUCATION AND EXPERTISE TODAY In addition to reviewing reports on ocean acoustic education and expertise, it was important to review the history of the field to understand how it grew from predominantly military uses to the many current applications. Much of this country’s early development of ocean acoustics research and education was funded by the Department of Defense (DoD) for USN to better understand the ocean environment and improve defense capabilities, such as developing and advancing anti-submarine warfare (ASW) during World War I and II and developing sonar.1 The location of acoustics and ocean acoustics courses in higher education institutions changed from physics or more applied mechanical engineering departments to additional departments, including electrical engineering, naval architecture, ocean engineering, oceanography, and others. Other governmental activities, including the Sea Grant program in 1966 and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 1970, expanded the interest in ocean sciences and research, including ocean acoustics. USN continued to emphasize a commitment to oceanography and oceanographic research, including ocean acoustics through investments in the 1980s and with Task Force Ocean in 2017. STATE OF EDUCATION AND EXPERTISE The current ocean acoustics workforce has come from various education pathways, including a combination of formal education and on-the-job training programs. Growth within the marine industries anticipated over the next decade will increase the need for skilled workers, including many with technical or applicable ocean acoustics competences that may not require advanced degrees (M.S. or Ph.D.). Coupled with this need is the continued need for ocean acousticians with advanced degrees to maintain expertise critical to national security and expand oceanographic research. Formal education in ocean acoustics or acoustics content is found in multiple departments (e.g., mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer engineering, civil engineering, computer science, biology, physics, aerospace engineering, oceanography, ocean engineering, geophysics, and marine science) or programs where it is 1 Sonar is defined as Sound Navigation and Ranging. Prepublication Copy 

4 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise typically a small part of the larger academic department. This can lead to a limited voice in the intellectual agenda and curricula of a university, little clout in hiring decisions, and gradual erosion of expertise when faculty retire. Additionally, the lack of a consistent home department impedes recruitment, growth, and recognition of the field. To meet the growing demand for ocean acoustics education, programs such as workshops, short courses, and tutorials can be offered to the existing workforce to broaden expertise and augment formal education programs for students, but increasing the extent and coverage of formal education programs is still necessary. Microcredentials, which are short, competency- based training opportunities, are another approach to prepare the large number of individuals required to meet the future needs of the marine workforce. CURRENT AND FUTURE EMPLOYMENT LANDSCAPE Ocean acoustics expertise was predominantly used by the military and defense-supported sectors. Today, however, all levels of government, academia, and private sectors have a demand for nearly all areas of marine-related activities, including port security, renewable energy, commercial fisheries, dredging and beach nourishment, mineral mining, and other non-defense research for ocean acousticians and technicians. In academia, these are predominantly research faculty partly because of the defense- related financial support. Research conducted by these faculty is critical for maintaining U.S. leadership in ocean acoustics and supporting national defense; a reduction in funding could jeopardize the U.S. research enterprise in this field. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of ocean acoustics education and the expansion of its needs, the landscape for workers with ocean acoustics experience encompasses more sectors than ever and requires various skill levels. Some technical or support positions remain unfilled because of strict degree requirements that exclude potentially qualified workers who have obtained the necessary skills through either technical training or on-the-job experience. ATTRACTING, RECRUITING, RETAINING, AND DIVERSIFYING THE OCEAN ACOUSTICS WORKFORCE Ocean acoustics faces a special set of challenges in attracting, recruiting, and retaining a diverse workforce because of its interdisciplinary nature, in addition to challenges common to the broader STEM domain. Several opportunities, however, are available to overcome these barriers, beginning with an understanding of demographics and representation within the field to raise awareness and determine how to build capacity throughout the entire educational pipeline from K–12 through the Ph.D. level. This includes early exposure to acoustics concepts, such as through music, and an expansion of training capabilities within organizational sectors with the goal of increasing all dimensions of workforce diversity. Increasing exposure to acoustics in curricula and educational programing and increasing community awareness and outreach opportunities can improve recruitment into higher education programs. Furthermore, career recruitment can be increased by raising the awareness of the variety of ocean acoustics career paths and jobs and how many are connected to topics related to areas of growing interest (e.g., climate science, data science). Community-wide, coordinated efforts to address specifically recruitment at the undergraduate level and retention of students in formal education program, as well as professionals in careers as educators, researchers, or practitioners, are critical for building a robust and diverse workforce that meets the needs of the nation. GAPS BETWEEN EDUCATION AND EXPERTISE AND WORKFORCE NEEDS The challenges facing the ocean acoustics community stem from its historical development, multidisciplinary nature, and diverse uses requiring various levels of technical expertise. Other needs and concerns are consistent with broader national workforce challenges, including significant shifts intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic. The committee sorted gaps identified between existing ocean acoustics Prepublication Copy 

Summary 5 education and training opportunities and expertise to meet current and future workforce needs into three categories: 1) programmatic, related to the availability of education and training programs; 2) curriculum, pertaining to specific ocean acoustics content in current and future programs; and 3) awareness, associated with the lack of educational awareness of related career pathways and the value ocean acoustics provides to science and society. Elements relating to the importance of a diverse ocean acoustics workforce were identified across all three gap areas and are discussed in Chapter 5. RECOMMENDATIONS The committee developed 11 recommendations to address the gaps between existing ocean acoustics education and training opportunities and expertise needed to meet current and future workforce demands, including recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce, and identify resources required to support ocean acoustics research and education and recruitment of a diverse workforce. The committee categorized recommendations as programmatic, curriculum, and awareness to reflect the three identified gaps and added a category, diversity, that is specific to needs related to recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce. In addition to being listed in bold later, the recommendations and supporting statements appear in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 and are summarized in Table 6-1. Many of the committee’s recommendations remain closely aligned with suggestions made by Lackie (1997),2 but are updated to reflect a workforce that includes expansion of the blue economy in addition to national defense. The conclusions and suggested actions from Lackie (1997) largely reflected defense needs (see Table 1-1). Seven recommendations from this committee are related to those from Lackie (1997) but updated to cover the needs of the modern and future workforce. They focus on advancing education of students in ocean acoustics, taking action to ensure public awareness of the importance of ocean acoustics, support for ocean acoustics research across federal agencies, and increasing training opportunities, such as internship programs for students and workshops to improve interactions between workforce and academia, and are listed in bold beginning on the next page. Table 6- 1 identifies which committee recommendations are aligned with recommendations from the Lackie report. During the information-gathering process, the committee reviewed conclusions and suggested actions from Lackie (1997) and assessed their relevance to today’s workforce and the scope of its task. Based on these relevance factors, a priority level was assigned; Table 1-1 displays the Lackie recommendations. The following bulleted items from the Lackie report were assessed by the committee as medium or high current relevance/priority and align with recommendation in this report. New recommendation from this committee are listed in bold in the subsequent paragraph. Supporting text for the recommendations appears in Chapters 5 or 6. • Take actions to maintain the production of students receiving graduate education in acoustics, even if many of those receiving such education do not take jobs in Navy research and development (R&D). • Take public action to recognize the importance of ocean acoustics to the Navy by increasing funding, protecting the program from cuts, establishing research chairs and student awards, or other appropriate, high-visibility actions. • Designate a limited number of academic institutions as Institutes of Naval Ocean Acoustics to serve as central sites through which ocean acoustics research would be administered. • Establish fellowship programs focused entirely on ocean acoustics. • Establish an ocean acoustics summer internship program for undergraduates between their third and fourth years. 2 Lackie, K. W. December 1997 Report of a Survey of US Academic Programs in Ocean and Underwater Acoustics. Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington (Seattle, Washington). Prepublication Copy 

6 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise • Use topical workshops to improve synergy between the Navy laboratories/centers and academia, to develop joint laboratory/academia research programs, and to better connect research with requirements. The following four committee recommendations are classified as programmatic and relate to the availability of education and training programs. Recommendation 5-2:3 Federal agencies should collaborate to create programs, including Centers of Excellence in Ocean Acoustics, at regional or national levels to raise the profile of the discipline, coordinate infrastructure and support to build capacity, maximize resources, and prevent redundancy to promote preparation of the next generation of the ocean acoustics workforce. Recommendation 6-1: Relevant federal agencies and industry should fund, or re-establish, sponsored chaired positions or similar designations, at institutions of higher education to accelerate mentorship and scholarly work. These positions would also provide direct collaboration between the education and research provided by faculty members and staff and the needs for advanced ocean acoustics expertise of the industry or agency. Positions would also provide direct relationships that can promote cross-discipline awareness of ocean acoustics within institutions of higher education and better align education and research to workforce needs. Recommendation 6-2: Relevant federal agencies and institutions of higher education should provide new investments in programs that support students’ development of ocean acoustics skills at non-advanced-degree levels (i.e., 2-year marine/acoustic technical degrees or certificates), while continuing to support research and advanced degree programs that advance the current state of ocean acoustics knowledge and meet the growing demand for technical skills over the next decade. Recommendation 6-4: Relevant federal agencies should engage with senior leadership at institutions of higher education to underscore the continued and critical, importance of acoustics programs within their institutions to support both national security and the growing blue economy and to encourage expansion of academic programs, course content and textbooks, and faculty and technical staff recruitment related to ocean acoustics. The next recommendation is related to curriculum and ocean acoustic content in current and future programs. Recommendation 6-6: Organizations with the capacity to develop and offer mission-related professional development opportunities in ocean acoustics should consistently offer short courses, tutorials, and other training opportunities (including online programs) related to ocean acoustics to promote continued professional development. Consistently offering these opportunities overcomes the challenges of sustaining relevant coursework and maintaining suitable instructors. The final two new recommendations that align with the 1997 Lackie report are classified as awareness and address improving knowledge and understanding of ocean acoustics as a field of study and career pathway. 3 The recommendations in this summary are numbered according to the chapter of the main text in which they appear. Prepublication Copy 

Summary 7 Recommendation 6-7: Federal, industry, and educational organizations should invest in outreach programs to U.S. high schools that focus on marine science or maritime career preparation. In addition, these sectors should provide information about ocean acoustics competencies and potential careers to increase awareness. Recommendation 6-8: Federal agencies and blue economy industries should dedicate financial support to ocean acoustics education and training both within grant-funded programs (coupled research-education opportunities) and through separate STEM education/training initiatives (education decoupled from specific research grants) that could integrate ocean acoustics into K–12 outreach and teacher professional development programs to increase awareness of ocean acoustics content and career opportunities. The committee also recommends the following four items to meet the anticipated demand for ocean acoustics research and education over the next decade and prepare and recruit a diverse workforce. Recommendation 5-1 is classified as diversity, Recommendation 5-3 as diversity and awareness, Recommendation 6-2 as programmatic, and Recommendation 6-5 as curriculum. Recommendation 5-1: The ocean acoustics community should increase diversity and retention through the following: • Institutions of higher education offering degrees in disciplines supporting ocean acoustics should increase academic retention programs to promote a sense of belonging for underrepresented students within STEM disciplines. • Institutions of learning should provide more exposure to positive STEM role models and mentors for girls, young women, and underrepresented minorities at all education levels to integrate STEM identities, build STEM confidence, and demonstrate the possibilities for turning STEM learning into a career. • Employers should improve the workplace climate for women and underrepresented minorities by challenging cultural biases, providing leadership training, supporting work-life balance, promoting parity and providing equal pay. Recommendation 5-3: Employers of ocean acoustics professionals should use a range of recruitment methods beyond recruiting at professional society conferences. Focusing recruitment efforts only at professional society conferences limits the potential applicant pool due to the many barriers to attending these meetings, such as costs, time, and academic or family commitments. However, recruitment efforts should be increased during professional society meetings that focus on serving populations underrepresented in STEM. Participation in job fairs and outreach events at minority-serving institutions could also assist with recruitment efforts. Recommendation 6-3: The Department of Defense and other relevant federal agencies should develop or update existing programs to better translate military experience and knowledge related to ocean acoustics gained during active-duty service to allow easier transition into civilian employment and improved retention of highly skilled military professionals in the ocean acoustics workforce. Recommendation 6-5: Institutions of higher education, in cooperation with the ocean acoustics workforce and professional societies, should develop curriculum guidelines and competencies to meet the demand for workers in both ocean acoustics research and applied Prepublication Copy 

8 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise ocean acoustics to ensure students receive baseline knowledge and develop the skills required for successful careers. Developing curriculum should include • Integration of opportunities targeting first through third-year undergraduates in science, engineering, and environmental policy to participate in hands-on learning that reinforces ocean acoustics concepts; • Effects of sound and bioacoustics content; • Acoustic propagation and soundscape modeling content; • Artificial intelligence, machine learning, and data science content; • Numerical modeling and analysis supported by high-capacity computing content; • Best practices in scientific computing; and • Data management. Prepublication Copy