Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise (2024)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

4 Current and Future Employment Landscape The current and future employment landscape for workers with expertise in ocean acoustics has never included as many sectors of the economy. This expertise used to be largely considered the province of the military and defense-supported academic sectors, but it is now more widely in demand to support public and private organizations focused on issues such as port security, renewable energy, commercial fisheries, or non-defense research. This chapter reviews that landscape for workers with either formal or on-the-job training in ocean acoustics based on the results of the committee’s information-gathering panels and community survey. It begins with an overview of the types of activities and areas where ocean acoustics is found in the workforce, then reviews employment opportunities within three areas: government (federal, state, local, and military), private sector, and academia/research. The final section examines the state of the workforce, including the ability to meet current and future demands for ocean acoustics expertise. AREAS OF OCEAN ACOUSTICS EXPERTISE IN THE WORKFORCE Outside of academia, a variety of civilian and military agencies, independent research institutions, and private-sector companies rely on workers with expertise in ocean acoustics. Commercial firms that design, manufacture, test, and market ocean acoustics instrumentation clearly have a direct need for a steady supply of engineers and scientists with acoustics expertise. Most organizations, including several branches of the military and civilian government, are users of instrumentation for passive monitoring (listening) or active sensing (interrogating the ocean). These organizations require workers who can acquire, process, analyze, and interpret acoustics data. Regulatory and management organizations require bioacoustics expertise to assess the potential impacts of sound on marine life. Another sector, which partially overlaps with some military and civilian government organizations, focuses on ocean acoustic modeling supporting defense applications, shipbuilding, environmental compliance, or marine construction. Finally, some organizations require ocean acoustics expertise because they either fund basic or applied research activities that use acoustic tools or regulate the use of acoustics in the marine environment. Based on the ocean acoustics activities listed in Table 4-1, employees with expertise in ocean acoustics may comprise a wide range of endeavors, including regulators who oversee compliance with federal statutes, engineers who design new sensors or test the sound radiation patterns of ships, technical staff and researchers who conduct marine surveys and engage in oceanographic fieldwork, physicists and oceanographers who formulate new sound propagation models, data scientists who manage large data libraries, and program officers who judge proposals and fund ocean acoustics research. This list is not exhaustive, and employment opportunities exist for those with formal education at levels ranging from certificates through Ph.D. and/or skills acquired from on-the-job training. Ocean acoustics opportunities may also be open to those trained in a variety of allied fields, including marine mammal science, public policy, geophysics, electrical or ocean engineering, data science, and wave physics. GOVERNMENT (MILITARY AND CIVILIAN) EMPLOYMENT In this report, government sector employers include both military and federal executive branch components and state and local governments. It is likely that federal government (military and civilian agencies combined) ocean acoustics employees outnumber those in academia and the private sector, although the committee could not find statistics to confirm this inference. 46 Prepublication Copy 

Current and Future Employment Landscape 47 TABLE 4-1 Ocean Acoustics Activities of Employers Key Activity 1 Uses ocean acoustics technology (regardless of the reason for its use) 2 Interprets and analyze data from ocean acoustic sensing technology (“data analysis”) 3 Designs new ocean acoustic sensors 4 Runs standard ocean models 5 Devises new ocean models 6 Conducts noise analysis for vessels (lab, data acquisition, models) 7 Regulates ocean acoustics 8 Prepares documentation to submit to regulators 9 Teaches ocean acoustics 10 Funds research that involves ocean acoustics 11 Conducts bioacoustics research 12 Engages in ocean acoustics data management 13 Advances ocean acoustics data science, including through machine learning, high-performance computation, and big data methods 14 Advocates for the ocean environment 15 Conducts public outreach related to ocean acoustics 16 Monitors infrastructure NOTE: The key numbers are used with Tables 4-2 and 4-3. Military Organizations Military organizations, such as USN (including the Marine Corps), USCG, and Army Corps of Engineers, employ both civilians and military personnel with ocean acoustics expertise. Those working with the military may operate and maintain active acoustic systems and interpret the resulting data; deploy passive acoustic sensors and analyze data; formulate and interpret sound propagation models; analyze sound radiation patterns from ships and submarines; and conduct research on bioacoustics, advanced data science topics, or novel acoustic systems needed to support national security. This study’s sponsor (ONR) employs experts in ocean acoustics to identify, evaluate, and fund opportunities in all of these areas, plus advanced sensor development, signal detection and processing, and cutting-edge topics. Military organizations typically have in-house environmental compliance teams that also include ocean acousticians. These teams prepare documentation (such as environmental impact statements) for military acoustics that often have no parallel in civilian practice, and they therefore require expertise in sound propagation, bioacoustics, and the unique characteristics of military sound sources and vessel noise. Box 4-1 provides a sample of the USN components, beyond ONR, that also provide support for ocean acoustics. Federal Government (Non-Military) Federal executive branch bureaus within the Departments of Commerce (NOAA) and Interior (BOEM, United States Geological Survey (USGS), United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)), and programs within the Department of Energy (DOE) and at NSF also rely to varying degrees on acoustics expertise. NOAA’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (OAR) and USGS both directly deploy ocean acoustics instrumentation and work with the data, and NOAA’s National Ocean Service (NOS) employs hydrographers who collect and process high-resolution bathymetric data. Components of OAR, such as the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and Uncrewed Systems, employ ocean acousticians who conduct research on ocean noise, ambient sound, new sensors, and bioacoustics or acquire acoustics data in support of the needs of OAR. NMFS (also part of NOAA), Prepublication Copy 

48 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise USFWS, and BOEM all regulate the use of active ocean acoustics and sound production related to anthropogenic sources (e.g., vessels, pile driving, seismic airguns) to comply with certain environmental statutes (e.g., Marine Mammal Protection Act, Endangered Species Act (ESA)). NSF provides funding for proposal-driven science. Researchers who receive NSF grants may use active acoustics to characterize the ocean or seafloor or communicate with devices or passive acoustics to monitor earthquakes or marine life. They may also conduct original research on bioacoustics, data science, fundamental sensor development, or acoustic data interpretation. DOE sometimes sponsors projects that use ocean acoustics tools. Table 4-2 provides a list of U.S. government organization users of ocean acoustics, with applications and their associated activities. BOX 4-1 Naval Laboratories The U.S. Naval laboratories are significant in both employment of personnel and DoD R&D and S&T budget resources in the field of ocean acoustics. Their ocean acoustics work is fundamental to the performance of the systems that they develop and/or maintain for the U.S. Navy (USN). Some, such as the Naval Research Laboratory, perform basic research; others are concerned with implementing technologies for systems use by the USN fleet. These laboratories also subcontract much of their work to industry, so they serve as a key bridge between the federal and private-sector ocean acoustics workforces. They also participate with U.S. allies to promote national security. Laboratories such as Federally Funded Research and Development Centers also both administer and perform research on ocean acoustics and in many respects are like the U.S. Navy laboratories (https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/ffrdclist/). 1. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL): Focus includes all facets of ocean acoustics as part of the Ocean and Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate. There are two locations for ocean acoustics, Washington, DC and Stennis Space Center in Bay St. Louis, MS. NRL is administered by ONR and reports to the Chief of Naval Research. 2. Naval Undersea Warfare Center (NUWC): Specializes in all aspects of sonar systems, both passive and active. Submarine sonars include towed arrays and the hull-mounted arrays for anti- submarine warfare, ice finding, echosounders for bathymetry, torpedoes, and acoustic communications. Other aspects include surveillance arrays. There are two NUWC locations for ocean acoustics, Newport, RI and Keyport, WA. 3. Naval Surface Warfare Center (NSWC): Specializes in structural acoustics and how a vessel radiates energy into the ocean. This includes signatures and silencing, naval architecture, and propulsors. These “Surface Warfare Centers’’ with significant ocean acoustics programs include Carderock in Bethesda, MD, Indian Head, MD, and Panama City, FL. NSWC maintains the longest U.S. towing tank, the David Taylor Model Basin (over one mile long) for testing hull forms at Carderock. The largest, full-spectrum laboratory for the acoustics of explosives and the application to propulsion and weapons in the Department of Defense is at Indian Head. Unmanned undersea vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicles and their use for acoustic intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, including acoustic data collection and mine warfare, are done at Panama City. In addition, there also acoustic ranges in the Bahamas, Lake Pend Oreille, ID and Ketchikan, AK for at-sea measurements. Collectively, these laboratories employ many professionals who use ocean acoustics, and make up a large portion of the ocean acoustics workforce. They also provide entry-level training for many in ocean acoustics through their participation in developing USN systems. The fields supporting these endeavors are signal processing (including time series analysis), vector calculus, and linear algebra. Most of these laboratories provide opportunities for advanced education in these fields. Prepublication Copy 

Current and Future Employment Landscape 49 TABLE 4-2 U.S. Government Organization (Listed Alphabetically) Users of Ocean Acoustics Organization Applications Notes Activities Non-Military National Science Foundation Funds active acoustics for bathymetric and Funds many federal fleet 1, 4, 8, 10, 11, (NSF) subbottom imaging and water column research ships within the 12, 13 imaging; passive acoustics for detecting University National earthquakes with marine seismometers; Oceanographic Laboratory bioacoustics; basic and applied acoustics System. research Sometimes collaborates with USGS on high-energy seismic cruises. Contracts for acoustic modeling to support Environmental Assessments on NSF-funded projects Department of Commerce, NMFS: Passive acoustics for monitoring Use, innovate, and regulate 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, National Oceanic and marine mammal activity; active acoustics acoustics 10, 11, 12, 13, Atmospheric Administration for bathymetric mapping, water column 15 (NOAA): imaging (including fish detection and —National Marine Fisheries biomass estimation), and other Service (NMFS) (NOAA) environmental parameters; acoustic —National Ocean Service modeling; bioacoustics; regulation of ocean (NOS) acoustics for application of Marine Mammal —Oceanic and Atmospheric Protection Act (MMPA) and Endangered Research (OAR) Species Act (ESA) and for projects in —National Weather Service NOAA-managed protected areas, including —NOAA sanctuaries, monuments, and reserves. Corps/Operations/Logistics NOS: Ocean mapping/hydrography OAR (includes Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, Global Ocean Monitoring, Uncrewed Systems): Ocean mapping, acoustics research, ocean monitoring. National Weather Service: Ocean sensing NOAA Corps/Operations/Logistics: Operate acoustics systems Department of Homeland Passive acoustics for port security Users of technology 1, 2 Security Department of Interior, Regulates active acoustics for renewable Coordinates industry MMPA 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, Bureau of Ocean Energy energy, oil and gas, and gravel resources on and ESA compliance with 11, 15 Management the Outer Continental Shelf; Impact NMFS Assessment. Some in-house acoustics modeling through the Center for Marine Acoustics Department of Interior, Fish Active acoustics for invasive species Regulatory authority for 7, 11 and Wildlife Service deterrence, especially in lakes; regulation of MMPA and ESA for some acoustics for certain marine species species Department of Interior, Active acoustics for invasive species Often collaborates with NSF 1, 2, 4, 10, 11, Geological Survey deterrence in rivers, canals, and lakes; on high-energy seismic cruises 12, 13 Active acoustics for bathymetric and subbottom imaging and water column imaging; passive acoustics for detecting earthquakes with marine seismometers; limited sound source verification experiments; sound deterrence for invasive species continued Prepublication Copy 

50 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise TABLE 4-2 continued Organization Applications Notes Activities Military Department of Defense Passive acoustics for monitoring; active ONR funds significant 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, (DoD), Navy, including acoustics for survey, detection, deterrence, amounts of acoustics research 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 research components, such as and monitoring; advanced ocean acoustics in the academic community Office of Naval Research modeling; applied acoustics research; (ONR), Naval Research bioacoustics (fish, marine mammals) Laboratory, Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Naval Surface Warfare Center DoD, Army Corps of Passive acoustics for detection and 1, 2, 16 Engineers monitoring (e.g., invasive species); active acoustics for deterrence and survey; underwater acoustics for navigation, river/stream flows, locks and dams, and other infrastructure DoD, Defense Advanced Active and passive acoustic projects and Funds a variety of ocean 10, 13 Research Projects Agency modeling for defense needs; applied acoustics research by academic acoustics research or private-sector firms Department of Homeland Passive acoustics for monitoring ship traffic; 1, 2 Security, U.S. Coast Guard active acoustic interdiction devices The ocean acoustics staffing needs vary within each of these organizations: NSF and DOE require program officers who understand the use of ocean acoustics, without needing deep expertise in the topic. BOEM employs acousticians with experience in bioacoustics, sound propagation modeling, and the regulatory framework. USGS, like NOAA OAR, primarily employs oceanographers, geophysicists, and hydrographers who use and interpret data from active or passive acoustic instrumentation. USGS also employs scientists who use acoustics as a deterrent for invasive species (e.g., Asian carp) on inland waterways. For both military and federal government positions, U.S. citizenship is a critical requirement, and some employees must also obtain security clearances. These requirements can limit the applicant pool for some positions, although a panelist from the military-affiliated national laboratory who was interviewed during the committee’s information gathering had ample suitable applicants and did not see the citizenship requirement as an impediment to hiring. Other panelists from federal regulatory agencies cited significant challenges in recruiting for positions that require an understanding of ocean acoustics. For example, BOEM, which founded a Center for Marine Acoustics in 2020, had difficulties identifying applicants with sufficient expertise in modeling ocean sound propagation. The regulatory branch of NMFS has sometimes struggled to hire and retain ocean acousticians with the physics experience needed to analyze the effects of acoustic exposure on marine animals. Barriers to filling these positions may include the citizenship requirement, a lack of awareness that these federal organizations hire ocean acousticians, the nature of regulatory work, and certain characteristics of federal employment (pay, work location, hiring practices, or bureaucratic challenges). Even if a new hire does not have the specific expertise sought by a federal regulatory agency, an effective strategy noted during an information-gathering panel was developing ocean acoustics knowledge in employees through on-the-job training. In contrast, a panelist who leads a military-affiliated national laboratory group in ocean acoustics did not report challenges with recruitment. The laboratory makes extensive use of internships to identify potential employees during their academic training and seeks employees from a broad range of technical disciplines, some seemingly unrelated to ocean acoustics. The citizenship requirement has not interfered with hiring appropriate employees. Prepublication Copy 

Current and Future Employment Landscape 51 State and Local Government State and local governments and law enforcement increasingly also require expertise in ocean acoustics. These government agencies may survey local water bodies with geophysical or hydrographic tools, evaluate projects that use active acoustic sources in state waters (e.g., consistency determinations for the Coastal Zone Management Act), conduct passive acoustic monitoring, or participate in acoustic deterrence projects. Law enforcement is starting to rely more frequently on ocean acoustics tools for imaging or detection associated with search and rescue missions in inland and ocean water bodies. This category had no conversations or survey responses, as it is a small sector with specialized and increasing ocean acoustics needs. PRIVATE-SECTOR AND ACADEMIC EMPLOYMENT Private-sector employers as defined here include all non-government or military organizations, with the exception of academic institutions. They may be for-profit companies engaged in any aspect of ocean acoustics or nonprofit research institutions or NGOs. Table 4-3 summarizes their ocean acoustics activities and competencies. Private-sector panelists who met with the committee reported success in hiring and retaining employees. These employers cast a wide net, attracting a combination of physicists, oceanographers, and geoscientists for many positions. Internships, usually through universities, were seen as critical to identifying potential employees and introducing them to the work and culture of the organization sometimes years before they were hired. One challenge brought to the committee’s awareness is the large range of job titles used to advertise ocean acoustics positions. This sometimes makes it harder for people to easily identify opportunities fitting their expertise. ACADEMIC/RESEARCH EMPLOYMENT Ocean acoustic has few tenured or tenure-track faculty positions, and, based on sheer numbers, this is not a large employment sector compared to sectors outside of academia. Ocean acoustics differs from some other physics-based fields in having substantial federal grant support, especially through defense agencies. This means relatively more research faculty (typically funded mostly by grants or contracts) than tenured/tenure-track faculty in ocean acoustics and some allied fields. At some universities and in some departments, research faculty advise graduate students, teach courses, and are principal investigators on grants, but other universities reserve those roles for tenured/tenure-track faculty. As most research faculty rely on grants or contracts (“soft money”) to fund their activities, these positions, although more abundant, can also be less secure over longer periods than tenured faculty lines, which are mostly funded by universities (“hard money”). Together, tenured/tenure-track faculty positions and research faculty positions constitute most of the ocean acoustic employment at academic institutions. As most employees who eventually work in any ocean acoustics sector receive formal education at these institutions, the impact of this cohort on the overall field is far greater than the absolute numbers might imply. Many who work in or teach ocean acoustics in academic institutions have their primary home in another discipline, such as marine biology, geophysics, or electrical engineering (Chapter 3). As so few university positions become available each year, finding enough applicants is usually not difficult. U.S. citizenship can be required for certain funding opportunities, but the survey results show that academic institutions often have many employees who are not U.S. citizens. Conclusion 4-1: Research faculty were found to be prevalent in ocean acoustics due in part to the availability of defense-related financial support. Studies conducted by research faculty are necessary for maintaining U.S. leadership in ocean acoustics, and a reduction to continuous and robust defense-related funding for ocean acoustics could jeopardize the U.S. research enterprise in this area. Prepublication Copy 

52 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise TABLE 4-3 Academic and Private-Sector Organizations (Listed Alphabetically) That Use Ocean Acoustics Organization Type Applications Notes Competencies Academic institutions (degree- Full range of ocean acoustics activities See Chapter 3 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 8, 9, granting) 11, 12, 13, 15 Aquaculture Monitoring of behavior, fitness, 1, 2, 11 enclosure conditions Cable laying Active and passive acoustics to support 1, 2, 8, 11 and maintain cable infrastructure; submit environmental compliance documents Commercial fishing Active acoustics for fish detection and 1, 2, 11 bycatch deterrence Industry organizations Advocacy for and education about use of 10, 14, 15 ocean acoustics; conduct studies on effects of ocean acoustics Marine acoustic consulting Desktop acoustic modeling to support Sectors supported include 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13 various sectors; occasional sound source ship building (radiated verification or other at-sea experiments sound), marine instrumentation, and environmental compliance Marine survey, construction, Active acoustics for seafloor and 1, 2, 8, 11 and salvage firms subseafloor characterization, mostly in support of site survey for infrastructure development (ports, energy); submit environmental compliance documents Non-governmental advocacy Passive acoustics to monitor marine life 1, 2, 11, 14, 15 organizations or ocean noise or advocate for (environmental/conservation) conservation/management objectives Nonprofit research institutions Full range of pure and applied ocean Examples: Monterey Bay 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, acoustics activities Aquarium Research 11, 12, 13, 15 Institute, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Scripps (often funded by federal agencies for marine acoustics research) Ocean sensor Design and market passive and active Instrumentation ranging 3 instrumentation/technology acoustic instrumentation from basic depth sounders firms to water column and seafloor imaging, ship and seismic detection, current speed and direction, and seafloor location. Offshore energy and carbon Active acoustics for site and Includes wind, tidal, and 1, 2, 8, 11, 12 mitigation geotechnical surveys; submission of conventional oil and gas environmental compliance documents sectors and seabed carbon sequestration Research foundations Active and passive acoustics in support Examples: Schmidt Ocean 1, 2, 10, 13, 14 of applied (e.g., exploration) research; Institute, Ocean data science Exploration Trust Transportation (vessel owners Active acoustics for biofouling/invasive 1, 2, 11 and operators) species, navigational hazard detection Prepublication Copy 

Current and Future Employment Landscape 53 Some academic institutions have additional technical staff who conduct experiments related to ocean acoustics, build new sensors, or work with sound propagation models. Even staff who do not specialize in ocean acoustics and are not counted as ocean acousticians may have basic knowledge that they use in applications such as incorporating acoustic releases into seafloor landers, tracking marine animals, or deploying pingers (locators) on over-the-side instrumentation, such as piston corers. Another category of academic employment in ocean acoustics is technical staff on research vessels. U.S. federal fleet research vessels not operated by NOAA are usually managed by universities or nonprofit research institutions, often through the UNOLS. These vessels are primarily used by grantees of the NSF, although NOAA, ONR, and other funders also sponsor or run expeditions. Technical staff must have knowledge of the variety of sonar, oceanographic (e.g., Acoustic Doppler current profiler), navigational, and location (e.g., ultrashort baseline) acoustics permanently installed on ships. In some cases, they must also be familiar with seismic systems and specialized acoustic systems provided for a single expedition. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, it has become increasingly difficult to retain technical staff and hire new staff for these research vessels; challenges may include long periods at sea, long workdays, insufficient shore-based work when ships are undergoing maintenance or between assigned expeditions, lower pay than private-sector ocean acoustics positions requiring the same level of skill and training, and the need for expertise to operate and troubleshoot so many disparate acoustics systems far from port or real-time technical support. Another challenge for these support positions in the past has been a lack of an obvious career path leading to higher-level work and greater responsibility. STATE OF THE WORKFORCE This chapter focused on existing employers, job categories, and needs in various sectors. Critical questions that should be addressed are whether there are sufficient suitable applicants for current positions (current employment) and future shifts (future employment) and whether workforce needs are likely to change in predictable ways in the future (future employment). In the Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise survey, respondents strongly indicated that ocean acoustic experts are too few for perceived future workforce needs. Marine bioacoustics is the topic most frequently identified as an area of future need and was also highlighted by Guan et al. (2021). This need is mostly related to human use of the ocean and the impact of the blue economy on marine life, although the survey conveyed a need for highly trained researchers to address knowledge gaps related to marine animal hearing and the physical effects of sound on marine life. The ocean acoustics workforce that supports certain industries is also expected to undergo transition. For example, the types of surveys needed for oil and gas exploration differ from those required for offshore renewable energy or seabed sequestration site studies. The effects of industry transitions on the total number of available jobs are unknown. The scale, scope, and rate of changes for this ocean acoustics workforce are difficult to assess. At the time of this report’s completion, the largest number of unfilled positions requiring a background in ocean acoustics was for technical staff on marine research vessels and within the ocean technology industry. Depending on the employer’s specific needs, these positions could be filled by employees holding an A.S. as engineering technicians or specialists; a B.A. in aspects of engineering, geoscience, or physics; or an M.S. that combines disparate fields and skill sets. Internships through programs such as MATE, managed by UNOLS, exposes recent degree recipients to career paths supporting ocean acoustics on marine vessels, but changes in how these positions are filled and the working conditions may be necessary to address the shortage of technical staff. Conclusion 4-2: Some jobs in ocean acoustics could be filled by those without formal college training. Employers could investigate hiring those with technical training or on-the-job experience instead. At present, potentially qualified workers are likely being overlooked by the enforcement of strict educational requirements in some positions. Prepublication Copy 

54 Ocean Acoustics Education and Expertise Federal regulatory agencies (e.g., BOEM, NMFS) have also struggled with finding employees with ocean acoustics expertise. As the parameters for federal positions are dictated by the Office of Personnel Management, not the agencies themselves, the best strategy may be wider publicity about the range of work they do and their need for a highly skilled, interdisciplinary workforce. Highlighting that staff with ocean acoustics expertise may rapidly acquire stature and influence within a regulatory agency, given the lack of employees with similar backgrounds, may appeal to some potential hires. The capacity and autonomy to publish peer-reviewed papers at the intersection of policy and technical analysis may also make the positions more attractive to some applicants. Conclusion 4-3: Federal agencies engaged in regulatory activities related to ocean acoustics have typically struggled to hire and maintain employees with sufficient expertise in the physics- based and aspects of ocean acoustics. Increasing ocean acoustics expertise at these agencies will enhance the credibility of regulatory decisions and engender better communication and mutual trust between the regulators and those whose work is regulated. Prepublication Copy