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XIX ARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM Hydrographic D e r r i c k used for Oceanographic Soundings at IGY D r i f t S t a t i o n "A" i n the A r c t i c Ocean
ARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM Page A. Organization and Membership USNC-IGY A r c t i c Committees and Working Groups 837 B. Summary of U.S. & Cooperative A r c t i c S t a t i o n Locations and S c i e n t i f i c Programs 839 C. A r c t i c S c i e n t i f i c Programs 843 1. Aurora and Airglow 843 2. Cosmic Rays 843 3. Geomagnetism 844 4. Glaciology 845 5. Gravity 847 6. Ionospheric Physics 847 7. Meteorology 848 8. Nuclear Radiation 849 9. Oceanography 849 10. Rocketry 850 11. Seismology 850 836
XIX. ARCTIC RESEARCH PROGRAM The s c i e n t i f i c program undertaken by the United States i n the a r c t i c regions dur- ing the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geophysical Year adhered clos e l y to the recommendations con- tained i n the USNC-IGY report to the Rome CSAGI meeting September 30-0ctober 4, 1954, and w i t h the recommendations and res o l u t i o n s of the CSAGI A r c t i c Conference held i n Stockholm, May 22-25, 1956. The U.S. p a r t i c i p a t e d i n s c i e n t i f i c studies at a t o t a l of 76 a r c t i c s t a t i o n s . Thirty-seven were i n cooperation w i t h other nations: Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and the UK. A large m a j o r i t y of the s t a t i o n s selected f o r IGY observations were i n operation p r i o r to the IGY and usually i t was necessary only to add extra ob- servers and equipment to meet the needs of the IGY s c i e n t i f i c program. However, to provide more complete coverage, the U.S. established and operated two major s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s on d r i f t i n g i c e i n the A r c t i c Ocean and established three new st a t i o n s i n Alaska f o r geomagnetic and glaciology studies. I n a d d i t i o n , s t a t i o n s were established on the McCall Glacier i n the Brooks Range, Alaska and on the Blue Glacier m the Olympic Mts., Washington f o r special g l a c i o l o g i c a l studies. A. Organization and Membership USNC-IGY A r c t i c Committees and Working Groups 1. USNC-IGY A r c t i c Regional Committee To f a c i l i t a t e the i n i t i a l planning of the US- IGY A r c t i c Program, the USNC-IGY established the U.S. A r c t i c Regional Committee i n mid-1963. The fu n c t i o n of t h i s Committee was to conduct a study and submit recommen- dations concerning the scope of the U.S. program that should be undertaken i n the arc- t i c regions. I t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were to determine: a. the e x i s t i n g U.S. a r c t i c f a c i l i t i e s t h a t might be u t i l i z e d i n the U.S. program; b. the e x i s t i n g s t a t i o n s , both U.S. and f o r e i g n , t h a t might best be u t i l i z e d on a cooperative basis w i t h other nations; c. the l o c a t i o n and number of new s t a t i o n s needed; and d. the l o g i s t i c c a p a b i l i t i e s and requirements, i n c l u d i n g regional t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . Membership of the A r c t i c Committee included: Bernt Balchen, J.G. Dyer, N.C. Gerson, A.C. McKinley, L.O. Quam, John Reed, E.H, Smith, Paul A. Si p l e , and A.L. Washburn (Chairman). I n September 1953, the Committee submitted a comprehensive report which included a gazeteer c o n s i s t i n g of three parts: a.) geographic data; b.) sta t i o n s and f a c i l i - t i e s (U.S. and f o r e i g n ) , and c.) t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and l o g i s t i c f a c i l i t i e s . The A r c t i c Committee's recommendations comprised the basis f o r the U.S. a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c pro- gram that the U.S. National Committee presented at the CSAGI meeting i n Rome, 1954. Having completed i t s r e p o r t , the A r c t i c Committee was dissolved i n November 1953. 837
ARCTIC RESEARCH 2. USNC-IGY A r c t i c Committee. I n accordance w i t h a recommendation of the 12th meet- ing of the Executive Committee, the USNC-IGY A r c t i c Committee was established to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , under the d i r e c t i o n of the U.S. National Committee, of matters p e r t a i n i n g to the U.S.-IGY a r c t i c s c i e n t i f i c program. The organizational meeting of t h i s Committee took place i n December 1955. At t h i s meeting, a special A r c t i c Committee Working Group was formed to coordinate the s c i e n t i f i c and l o g i s t i c aspects of the U.S. programs i n the a r c t i c . The main accom- plishments of t h i s Committee, w i t h the assistance of the special A r c t i c Committee Working Group and associated Technical Panels included: a.) formulation and imple- mentation of f i n a l plans and se l e c t i o n of s t a t i o n s f o r the s c i e n t i f i c program, b.) l i a i s o n and ne g o t i a t i o n w i t h the m i l i t a r y and other government agencies concerning command r e l a t i o n s h i p s and pr o v i s i o n of adequate l o g i s t i c support, i n c l u d i n g the establishment of the two d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c Ocean, and c.) i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i a i s o n w i t h other nations who were p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the IGY program m the a r c t i c regions. Nine meetings were held by the A r c t i c Committee, a l l i n Washington, D.C., on the f o l l o w i n g dates: December 1, 1955 January 30, 1956 A p r i l 10, 1956 June 27, 1956 October 1, 1956 February 15, May 15, 1957 December 12, May 7, 1958 1957 1957 The membership of the A r c t i c Committee and i t s Working Group i s shown below: A r c t i c Committee John Reed, Chairman Nathan C, Gerson, Vice-Chairman A l b e r t P. Crary C.T. Elvey J.O. Fletcher E.O. Hulburt G.G. L i l l Homer Newell Alan H. Shapley Harry Wexler Secret a r i a t (IGY S t a f f ) Peter H. Wood C.W. Thomas POD Task Group Representatives J.H. Fox George Grimminger R.R. P h i l l i p p e L.O. Quam J.O. Fletcher J, Currie A r c t i c Committee Working Group J.O. Fletcher, Chairman F. H. Dickson R.C. Hubley N.J. Ol i v e r G. G. L i l l J.A. Peoples, J r . J. Streeton E.A. Volbrecht Secretariat (IGY S t a f f ) Peter H. Wood The A r c t i c Committee Working Group was discontinued May 15, 1957. 838
ARCTIC RESEARCH B. Summary of U. S. & Cooperative A r c t i c S t a t i o n Locations & S c i e n t i f i c Programs A Aurora & Airglow M Meteorology C Cosmic Rays N Nuclear Radiation Gl Glaciology 0 Oceanography Gm Geomagnetism R Rocketry Gr Gravity Se Seismology I Ionospheric Physics W Whistlers S t a t i o n L a t i t u d e Longitude Program A C Gl Gm Gr I M N 0 R Se W Adak, Alaska 51''54'N 176''39'\} I M 0 Ak l a v i k , Canada* 68 13 135 00 A Alaska Range, Alaska 62- es'N 145- 152''W Gl A l e r t , Ellesmere I s . , Can.* 82 33 62 20 Anchorage, Alaska 61 10 149 55 Gm Annette I s . , Alaska 55 02 131 34 Argentia, N f l d . , Can.* 47 18 54 00 A t t u I s . , Alaska 52 50 173 11 E Banff, A l t a . , Canada* 51 10 115 30 W C Barrow, Alaska 71 18 156 47 A C Gm Barter I s . , Alaska 70 08 143 38 Gm Bethel, Alaska 60 47 161 43 B e t t l e s , Alaska 66 54 151 50 A Big Delta, Alaska 64 09 145 51 Gm Blue Glacier (Olympic NP, Wash) 47 55 123 45 Gl C h u r c h h i l l ( F t . ) , Canada* 58 45 94 04 C Gm Coast Mts 6c Southern Alaska 55-â¢60° 130-â¢140° Gl Cold Bay, Alaska 55 12 162 43 College, Alaska (includes Fairbanks) o4 51 147 50 A C Gm Coral Harbour, Canada* 64 09 83 02 Davis S t r a i t (USS Plymouth Rock) A C Gm M I M N W M M M 0 R I M 0 M ⢠M M N R M I M N Se W N * Cooperative Stations 839
ARCTIC RESEARCH Stat i o n Latitude Longitude A C Gl Gm Gr I M N 0 R Se W Deep River, Ont., Canada* D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n A D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n B 46°06' 77°03'W N A Gl Gra Gr M N 0 Se A Gl Gr I M 0 Edmonton, A l t a . , Canada 53 33 113 30 N Enkoping, Sweden* Ellesmere I s . , Eureka,/Canada 59 35 79 59 17 08 85 57 E W I M Farewell, Alaska 62 32 153 54 A I F t. Greeley, Alaska 63 59 145 40 M Ft. Yukon, Alaska 66 34 145 18 A Gm I Frobisher Bay, NWT, Canada* 63 28 67 23 I Godhavn, Greenland* 69 23 53 52 C I Goose Bay, Labr., Canada* 53 20 60 25 M N Grindavik, Iceland* 63 48 23 39 0 Healy, Alaska 63 51 149 05 A Gm Isachsen, NWT, Canada* 78 47 103 32 M Juneau, Alaska 58 40 139 06 N K e f l a v i k , Iceland* 63 57 22 37 M N King Salmon, Alaska 58 42 156 42 A I M Kiruna, Sweden* 67 83 20 43 E A I Knob Lake, Canada* 54 48 66 49 A I Kodiak, Alaska 57 45 152 31 M 0 Kotzebue, Alaska 66 53 162 36 A Gm I M Lemon Creek Glacier, Alaska 58 134 Gl Matanuska, Alaska 61 34 149 16 M McCall Glacier, Alaska 69 143 Gl McGrath, Alaska 62 58 155 37 M Meanook, Canada* 54 37 113 20 A I Moncton, Canada* 46 07 64 41 N * Cooperative Stations w w 840
ARCTIC RESEARCH Stat i o n L a t i t u d e Longitude A C Gl Gm Gr I M N 0 R Se W I W N N M I M Mont J o l i , Que., Canada* 48 35 68 11 Montreal, Que., Canada* 45 30 73 35 Moosonee, Ont., Canada* 51 16 80 39 Mould Bay, NWT, Canada* 76 14 119 20 Narsarssuak, Greenland* 61 11 45 25 Neepawa, Man., Canada* 50 30 99 50 Nome, Alaska 64 30 165 26 North A t l a n t i c (USS Atka) North Bay, Ont., Canada* 46 18 79 27 Northway, Alaska 62 58 141 57 Ocean Weather S t a t i o n B Ocean Weather St a t i o n C Oslo, Norway* 59 54 10 38 E Prestwick, Scotland* 55 31 4 36 Prince A l b e r t , Sask., Can,* 53 12 105 45 Regina, Sask., Canada* 50 26 104 40 Resolute, NWT., Canada 74 41 94 54 Reykjavik, Iceland* 64 08 21 54 St. Paul I s . , Alaska 57 09 170 13 St. Johns, N f l d . , Canada* 47 32 52 47 Saskatoon, Canada* 52 08 106 38 Seven I s . , Que., Canada* 50 13 66 16 Sit k a , Alaska 57 03 135 20 South Cascade Glacier 48 21 121 02 Stephenville, NFld, Canada* (Harmon AFB) 48 32 58 33 Thorlakshofn, Iceland* 63 51 21 22 Thule, Greenland* 76 55 68 83 * Cooperative Stations Gm Gl M N M M N N N M Se I M I M Gm 0 Se M N 0 A C Gl Gr I M N Se 841
ARCTIC RESEARCH Stat i o n Latitude Longitude A C Gl Gm Gr I M N 0 R s"e~w" Unalaska, Alaska Uppsala, Sweden* Winnipeg, Man., Canada* Yakutat, Alaska 53 53 59 85 49 53 59 31 166 32 17 92 E 97 10 W 139 40 0 W Se N M * Cooperative Stations 842
ARCTIC RESEARCH C. A r c t i c S c i e n t i f i c Programs 1. Aurora and Airglow (See Chapter I , Projects 1.2, 1 14, 1.24, 1.25, 1.42, 1.43, 1.44, and Chapter XVI, Project 22.6) a. Objectives The programs were designed to enhance as a c r i t i c a l p o r t i o n of the o v e r a l l aurora and airglow program, synoptic observations of the ( i ) morphology, ( i i ) locations of the incidence of hydrogen and ( i i i ) the l o c a t i o n of the ionized regions associated w i t h the v i s i b l e auroras using radar techniques. By coordinating equipment and observation techniques w i t h those i n the a n t a r c t i c and other s t a t i o n s , a greater degree of accuracy and c o r r e l a t i o n could be obtained throughout the prograir, b. Program. The a l l - s k y camera was used a t a l l aurora s t a t i o n s l i s t e d , except King Salmon, Kiruna, Sweden, Saskatoon; and Unalaska. These s t a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y were conducting radio wave absorption studies. The s p e c i a l l y b u i l t a l l - s k y camera took photographs of aurora at regular i n t e r v a l s , covering the sky almost from horizon to horizon. Exposures were at least once every f i v e minutes and a t one minute i n t e r v a l s during displays and Special World I n t e r v a l s (SWI). This schedule was coordinated w i t h ionospheric studies. The r e s u l t i n g data i s used i n drawing synoptic maps of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of aurora during the IGY. The U. S. operated the Meinel-Oliver photographic p a t r o l spectrograph at College, Saskatoon, and Thule. I t used a transmission g r a t i n g and spherical m i r r o r and lens system, w i t h a spectrum along the magnetic meridian from 5° above one horizon to 10° above the other. ^ Observers used alidades, diagram cards, and mark-sense punch cards f o r recording v i s u a l studies. Riometer studies of absorption associated w i t h a u r o r a l and magnetic storms were made at Barrow, College, Farewell, Ft. Yukon, King Salmon, Thule, Unalaska, and Meanook. A chain of radar s t a t i o n s was operated by the U. S. a t Barrow, College, Farewell, Kotzebue, King Salmon, and Unalaska. A scanning spectrometer was operated at College f o r d e t a i l e d studies of the auroral spectrum. The program was designed to provide information on rapid changes of a u r o r a l spectra during periods of high geomagnetic a c t i v i t y . c. Preliminary Results. Data from a r c t i c s t a t i o n s form an important segment of the o v e r a l l data used i n analysis of a u r o r a l events and i n published r e s u l t s of studies. A b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n of the maximum northern a u r o r a l zone showed t h i s occured between 66-67° geomagnetic l a t i t u d e . As a whole, the data t e n t a t i v e l y has shown a high degree of s i m u l t a n e i t y a t c e r t a i n conjugate Northern and Southern Hemisphere s t a t i o n s . Riometers measurements of ionospheric absorption proved to be a s e n s i t i v e method of detecting low energy cosmic rays of solar o r i g i n . However, because of d i f f e r e n c e i n l a t i t u d e , a l t i t u d e , and d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t a t i o n s i t i s d i f f i c u l t to make d e f i n i t e conclusions or comparisons. I t i s hoped that f u r t h e r concerted studies i n t h i s area w i l l enable analysts to compensate f o r the d i f f e r e n c e s . 2. Cosmic Rays (See Chapter I I , Projects 2.4, 2.8, 2.12, 2.16, 2.22, 2.25, 2.28, 2.29, 2.32, and Chapter XVI, Project 22.5) a. Objectives. The a r c t i c cosmic-ray program was i n i t i a t e d to f o l l o w CSAGI's o r i g i n recommendation that cosmic-ray i n t e n s i t y be studied over a wide geomagnetic l a t i t u d e . Since Thule, Greenland i s near the v i c i n i t y of the n o r t h geomagnetic pole, several studies were concentrated i n that area. 843
ARCTIC RESEARCH b. Program. At Thule and College neutron monitors were operated throughout the IGY. I n cooperation w i t h Canadian s c i e n t i s t s , an i d e n t i c a l l y designed monitor was operated a t Resolute, Canada i n order to compare data w i t h that a t Thule. Balloon f l i g h t s , f o r high a l t i t u d e data, were made at Prince A l b e r t , Neepawa, and Ft. C h u r c h i l l , as w e l l as from Thule. During the f l i g h t s , ground observations from these s t a t i o n s were made w i t h the meson telescopes and gieger counters. Long- dur a t i o n balloon f l i g h t s from F t . C h u r c h i l l were made f o r a study of primary cosmic- ray i n t e n s i t y . A meson telescope to provide a continuous record of the meson f l u x , r e l a t e d to primary cosmic r a d i a t i o n s , was operated a t Thule. A s i m i l a r telescope was i n s t a l l e d a t Wilkes S t a t i o n , A n t a r c t i c a , to provide c o r r e l a t i v e data. An i n t e g r a l p a r t of the U S. program was the rocket-borne cosmic ray studies. These were conducted j o i n t l y w i t h Canada at Ft. C h u r c h i l l , from shipboard (USS PLYMOUTH ROCK) i n the Davis S t r a i t o f f Greenland and were coordinated w i t h balloon and surface observations. c. Preliminary Results. Seasonal d i u r n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n cosmic ray i n t e n s i t y were noted. Data a f f e c t i n g i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y studies as r e l a t e d to cosmic ray events has led to new i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m the f i e l d of low energy solar cosmic rays and polar cap absorption. Thule and Wilkes recorded even small solar f l a r e s . From these data i t was found th a t there e x i s t s a constant r a t i o between neutron and meson i n t e n s i t y change during Forbush decreases which can be obtained i f meson data are accurately corrected f o r temperature. Data from Thule showed th a t the decreases are always 20% larger i n neutron i n t e n s i t y . 3. Geomagnetism (See Chapter I I I , Projects 3.5 to 3.10, 3.15; an,d Chapter XVI, Project 22.6) a. Objectives. The geomagnetic program i n the a r c t i c , as i n other areas, was designed t o y i e l d Information about magnetic f i e l d f l u c t u a t i o n s which a r i s e from influences ex t e r n a l to the surface of the earth. b. Program. Five new s t a t i o n s spread across the northern zone of maximum au r o r a l frequency and of the e l e c t r i c a l current of magnetic disturbances were established a t Anchorage, Kotzebue, Barter I s l a n d , Northway, and Fr. Yukon, and equipped w i t h three-component Askania variographs. Permanent observatories w i t h standard magnetographs a t Barrow, Big Delta, Healy, S i t k a , and College had t h e i r programs augmented. Barrow added a Ruska quick run magnetograph and v i s u a l i n d i c a t - ing equipment. Big Delta, Healy and S i t k a , m a d d i t i o n t o normal and low s e n s i t i v i t y magnetographs also had a Ruska quick run magnetograph. At College, a d i f f e r e n t i a l , normal and low s e n s i t i v i t y , and quick run magnetograph were used. Data from College, Healy, and Big Delta was expected to y i e l d i n f o r m a t i o n on e l e c t r i c currents i n the ionosphere associated w i t h disturbances i n the magnetic f i e l d . The College program Included sub-audio measurements (1-50 cps) and v i s u a l i n - d i c a t i n g equipment, which were used i n conjunction w i t h s i m i l a r equipment a t Thule. A low s e n s i t i v i t y , semi-portable Askania variograph, i n s t a l l e d on D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n A, operated u n t i l November 1958 when the s t a t i o n was abandoned because of ice d e t e r i o r a t i o n . 844
ARCTIC RESEARCH Rocket-borne magnetometers were launched from Ft. C h u r c h i l l and from a ship i n the sub-arctic area f o r the purpose of l o c a t i n g and measuring d i r e c t l y the magnitude of e l e c t r i c a l currents i n the ionosphere. c. Preliminary Results. Sub-audio measurements data a t Thule and College, when compared to a single-component instrument used previously at Barrow, f a i l e d to show the same r e s u l t s of increased s i g n a l l e v e l s preceding by several hours larger mag- ne t i c disturbances. Further analyses of these data w i l l be needed to give any d e f i n i t e r e s u l t s . Other data w i l l be integrated i n t o that received from magnetic observatories i n e q u a t o r i a l and temperate regions. 4. Glaciology (See Chapter IV, Projects 4.1, 4,3, 4.7, 4.11, 4.17, 4.18, 4.21, con t r i b u t e d p r o j e c t s ; and Chapter XVI, p r o j e c t s 21.11, 21.14, 21.15) a. Objectives. The Northern Hemisphere gla c i o l o g y program included d e t a i l e d and reconnaissance studies of selected areas i n Alaska and the western United States. Through intensive g l a c i o l o g i c a l programs i n small areas and surveys of wider areas. I t was f e l t t h a t i t would be possible to obtain a record of the status and behavior of g l a c i e r s f o r comparison w i t h past, present, and f u t u r e comparison studies. The gla c i o l o g y program included studies of the h i s t o r y and mechanics of mountain g l a c i e r s , ice sheets and d r i f t i c e ; and the influence of t h i s great volume of polar ice on meteorology, climatology and oceanography. Synoptic studies of the f l u c t u - ations i n mass of northern g l a c i e r s and a r c t i c sea-ice provide clues to past c l i m a t i c changes and present trends. The study of heat and moisture exchanges across sea-ice and a i r - i c e i n t e r f a c e s , long-range and seasonal accumulation, and a b l a t i o n studies were e s s e n t i a l parts of t h i s program. b. S t a t i o n Programs ( i ) Blue Glacier. The U n i v e r s i t y of Washington maintained a f i e l d s t a t i o n i n the accumulation zone of the Blue Glacier i n the Olympic Mountains of Washington throughout a complete accumulation-ablation cycle. I n a d d i t i o n , on the lower p o r t i o n of the g l a c i e r , the C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of Technology studied the mode and mechanism of the flow occurring i n the tongue of the g l a c i e r . A f u l l program of g l a c i o l o g i c a l studies was c a r r i e d out. These included boring fo r seismic studies and obtaini n g ice samples, stakes were put out f o r a flow- v e l o c i t y network, and samples f o r ice p e t r o f a b r i c , ice s t r u c t u r e , and oxygen-isotope r a t i o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were taken. The mass and energy studies included c l i m a t o l o g i c a l records, accumulation, a b l a t i o n , time p r o f i l e of winter snow cover, r a d i a t i o n , and energy balance studies. ( i i ) McCall Glacier. Observations taken a t two s t a t i o n s located on the McCall Glacier i n the eastern Brooks Range of northern Alaska represented the f i r s t d i r e c t U. S. s c i e n t i f i c study of an a r c t i c alpine g l a c i e r , A f u l l g l a c i o l o g i c a l program, organized by the A r c t i c I n s t i t u t e of North America, was undertaken. Studies at the main s t a t i o n located i n a f i r m region on the upper part of the g l a c i e r about 8,200 feet above sea l e v e l included snow s t r a t i g r a p h y , movement, and micrometeor- ology. At the second s t a t i o n , about one mile above the g l a c i e r terminus, the program included surface movement observations and photogrammetry. ( i i i ) Greenland Ice Cap. A cooperative Danish-US program i n gl a c i o l o g y was c a r r i e d out on the great c o n t i n e n t a l ice sheet of Greenland, Ice movement and mechanics were studied by the U. S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Research Establish- ment (SIPRE). Deep d r i l l i n g , inaugurated on the Greenland Ice Cap by SIPRE i n 1956, was continued and improved during the summer of 1957. A modified F a i l i n g "1500" d r i l l r i g and s p e c i a l l y designed core b a r r e l s and b i t s were used. The ice c u t t i n g s were removed from the d r i l l hole by cooled compressed a i r . 845
ARCTIC RESEARCH One d r i l l hole exceeded a depth of 900 fee t and three-inch diameter cores were broken down i n t o yearly s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s by density measurements and v i s u a l examination. Studies were made of c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e and o r i e n t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a t e s , and the r a t i o of OÌ ^ to 0^8 to i d e n t i f y summer and winter layers. ( i v ) A r c t i c Ocean D r i f t i n g Stations. G l a c i o l o g i c a l work on the A r c t i c Ocean d r i f t i n g ice s t a t i o n s established by the U. S. were concerned mainly w i t h the heat budget of the a r c t i c and included studies of the s t r a t i g r a p h y and p e t r o f a b r i c s of the ice pack. A sea ice physics program was c a r r i e d out on D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n A to determine the physical and chemical properties of sea ice and to r e l a t e these properties to the mass and energy exchange between the i c e , atmosphere, and sea. This program included: (a) Structure - general morphology of ice f l o e s , young and o l d , w i t h emphasis on s t r u c t u r a l breaks, annual l a y e r i n g and v e r t i c a l d i s - t r i b u t i o n of g r a i n s i z e , brine pockets and a i r bubbles, (b) a i r content - as a fu n c t i o n of rate of f r e e z i n g , s a l i n i t y and time; (c) density - as a f u n c t i o n of a i r content, s a l i n i t y and temperature; (d) s a l i n i t y - as a f u n c t i o n of morphology; (e) brine - as a f u n c t i o n of temperature and developmental s t a t e , ( f ) hydrogen- deuterium r a t i o - comparison between sea water and o l d i c e ; (g) thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y , (h) t e n s i l e strength - formation of pressure ridges and general morphology and d i s - t r i b u t i o n of pack ic e . c. Reconnaissance Programs. ( i ) Western United States. The U. S. Geological Survey, National Park Service, U. S. Forest Service, and the U n i v e r s i t y of Washington cooperated i n a pro- gram of t e r r e s t r i a l and a e r i a l mapping i n the Cascade, Olympic, Sierra Nevada, and Rocky Mountains. The program was a part of the world-wide e f f o r t to obtain a g l a c i e r census during the IGY and c o l l e c t information on g l a c i e r f l u c t u a t i o n s and ice flow. ( l i ) Southern Alaska. The American Geographical Society conducted studies of g l a c i e r s i n the Alaska Range, Kenai and Chugach Mountains, and on Wrangell Mountain. Later studies were made of g l a c i e r s i n southeastern Alaska a t Glacier Bay, the Coast Mountains and other selected areas by a e r i a l photography. Botanical and geol o g i c a l studies were used i n connection w i t h ground and a e r i a l photography and surveys i n pr o v i d i n g new in f o r m a t i o n on ter m i n a l areas and i n e s t a b l i s h i n g new points of reference f o r comparison studies of the g l a c i e r s . ( i i i ) Glacier Photogrammetry and Mapping. The AGS undertook preparation of large scale maps of selected g l a c i e r s f o r use i n the comparison studies i n Alaska and i n the Cascade and Olympic Mountains Washington. The photography was accomp- lis h e d w i t h the assistance of the U. S. Navy and Coast & Geodetic Survey, and enhanced studies of g l a c i e r s already being c a r r i e d out at such s i t e s as the Blue, McCall, and Lemon Creek Glaciers. d. Contributed Projects. The f o l l o w i n g p r o j e c t s were part of continuing pro- grams of agencies other than the USNC which were d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to IGY studies. Through the cooperation of these agencies they are part of the U. S. c o n t r i b u t i o n to the IGY and data has been sent to the World Data Centers. ( i ) South Cascade Glacier. The U. S. Geological Survey conducted d e t a i l e d regimen studies of the South Cascade Glacier i n connection w i t h the reconnaissance survey of western g l a c i e r s . 846
ARCTIC RESEARCH ( l i ) Mt. Chamberlln, B a r t e r I s l a n d , Lake P e t e r s . The T e r r e s t r i a l S c i e n c e s Laboratory of the Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e , AFCRL, conducted s t u d i e s i n g l a c i a l meteorology and hydrology near the Chamberlin G l a c i e r and i n the Lake P e t e r s - Lake Schrader a r e a . A g e o l o g i c a l reconnaissance was made of B a r t e r I s l a n d and a p o r t i o n of the Alaskan a r c t i c c o a s t . ( l i i ) Lemon Creek G l a c i e r . The American Geographical S o c i e t y , under a c o n t r a c t w i t h the O f f i c e of Naval Research, c a r r i e d out s t u d i e s on the s u r f a c e move- ment, mass t r a n s f e r , and h y d r o l o g i c a l budget of the Lemon Creek G l a c i e r of the Juneau I c e F i e l d . e. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . While these s t u d i e s have re v e a l e d information on many Northern Hemisphere g l a c i e r s , there remains the main problem of i n t e g r a t i n g the information i n t o the world-wide data. For example, s t u d i e s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n on the Blue G l a c i e r m the Olympic Mountains re v e a l e d an unexpectedly high accumulation. I n February 1958, 417" of new snow had f a l l e n a t the s t a t i o n . However, the summer of 1958 showed a heavy a b l a t i o n and g e n e r a l r e t r e a t i n the Olympic and northern Cascades. Observations of southern A l a s k a g l a c i e r s show that these g l a c i e r s have not withdrawn as many others i n A l a s k a have, and t h e i r behavior r e v e a l s a g r e a t d e a l of v a r i a t i o n . 5. G r a v i t y (See Chapter V, P r o j e c t s 5.7, 5,8) a. O b j e c t i v e s . The program for the IGY provided standards for c a l i b r a t i o n of gravimeters and f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l datum c o n t r o l ; U. S. i n v e s t i g a t o r s made measure- ments along four m e r i d i o n a l l i n e s : A l a s k a to C h i l e , Greenland to Argentina, Norway to South A f r i c a , and Japan to A n t a r c t i c a . b. Program. Determinations i n the a r c t i c areas were made wi t h gravimeters and pendulums (Gulf compound q u a r t z ) . The f i r s t - o r d e r North American s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n net was extended northward to Barrow and south to Punta Arenas. Gravimeter determin- a t i o n s were made a t both d r i f t s t a t i o n s i n the A r c t i c Ocean and p e r i o d i c t i e s were made to F a i r b a n k s and Thule. The use of gravimeter measurements, along w i t h other s t u d i e s a t these s t a t i o n s , provided much information about submarine topography. c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . The program was s u c c e s s f u l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a new s e r i e s of G u l f pendulum measurements from P t . Barrow to Punta Arenas. I t was a l s o p o s s i b l e to t i e the e n t i r e g l o b a l system together w i t h observations w i t h the same instruments a t Potsdam, the i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r a v i t y datum. 6. Ionospheric P h y s i c s (See Chapter V I , P r o j e c t s 6.1, 6.10 to 6.12, 6.19, 6.26 to 6.28) a. O b j e c t i v e s . The a r c t i c ionospheric p h y s i c s program contained both synoptic and s p e c i a l programs which were e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n high l a t i t u d e s and which were organized i n cooperation w i t h s i m i l a r programs i n A n t a r c t i c a . b. Program. St u d i e s included were v e r t i c a l incidence sweep-frequency soundings, absorption measurements, f i x e d frequency b a c k s c a t t e r , and recording of w h i s t l e r s . ( i ) V e r t i c a l i ncidence soundings were made a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s throughout each day u s i n g automatic sweep-frequency C-3 and C-4 r e c o r d e r s . T h i s equipment sweeps from one to 25 Mc i n a period of 15 to 30 seconds and measures the v i r t u a l h eights and c r i t i c a l f r e q u e n c i e s of the ionospheric l a y e r s . Normally, a sweep was made a t the beginning of each hour and every 15 minutes t h e r e a f t e r . During World Days and S p e c i a l I n t e r v a l s the equipment was a d j u s t e d to make more frequent sweeps, up to a miximum of one every 15 seconds. 847
ARCTIC RESEARCH Recordings were made on 35 mm f i l m w i t h some continuous p a r a l l e l runs on 16 mm f i l m These were processed and s c a l e d d a i l y for s i g n i f i c a n t ionospheric c h a r a c t e r - i s t i c s . Monthly, and i n some i n s t a n c e s d a i l y , summaries of data were transmitted by radio to the C e n t r a l Radio Propagation Laboratory of the N a t i o n a l Bureau of Standards for use i n f o r e c a s t i n g s p e c i a l g e o p h y s i c a l phenomena. The U. S. Army S i g n a l Corps, Radio Propagation Agency and the CRPL cooperated i n the supply and maintenance of these s t a t i o n s which were located a t Adak, Anchorage, C o l l e g e , and Pt. Barrow, Alaska and on D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n B. The U. S. cooperated w i t h other n a t i o n a l committees i n the operation, maintenance and exchange of data for s t a t i o n s a t S t . Johns, Newfoundland, Godhavn, Narsarssuak, and Thule, Greenland, and R e y k j a v i k , I c e l a n d . ( i i ) Ionospheric absorption was determined through a study by the cosmic noise method. Riometers, developed by the U n i v e r s i t y of A l a s k a , were i n s t a l l e d a t F a r e w e l l , C o l l e g e , F t . Yukon, Barrow, King Salmon, and Unalaska, A l a s k a , w i t h cooperative programs a t Thule and Kiruna, Sweden. The s t u d i e s were c a r r i e d out i n connection w i t h the aurora program for measuring absorption of e x t r a - t e r r e s t r i a l radio waves i n the a u r o r a l zone and records were a l s o used i n connection w i t h geo- magnetic data. S i m i l a r s t u d i e s to determine simultaneous absorption changes were made a t Knob Lake. ( i l l ) F i x e d frequency backseatcer measurements a t oblique incidence were i n v e s t i g a t e d by the Radio Propagation Laboratory of the Stanford U n i v e r s i t y . Back- s c a t t e r radars were i n s t a l l e d a t Thule, Meanook, Knob Lake, and C o l l e g e . They were c a r r i e d out i n cooperation w i t h the U. S Army S i g n a l Corps, Propagation Laboratory, CRPL, and the Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of Alaska and Canadian N a t i o n a l Committee. Exchange of data and comparison of r e s u l t s of s p e c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s using the same instrumentation was made between Kiruna, Sweden and C o l l e g e . ( i v ) W h i s t l e r s a r i s i n g from e l e c t r i c d i scharges i n the atmosphere were mon- it o r e d using s e n s i t i v e r a d i o r e c e i v i n g apparatus i n the audio and very low frequency ranges Data were recorded on magnetic tapes and c o r r e l a t e d w i t h that from other s t a t i o n s to determine d i s p e r s i o n and other p r o p e r t i e s . Comparisons were made wi t h simultaneous measurements obtained at conjugate geomagnetic points i n the a n t a r c t i c . S t a t i o n s were operated a t Kotzebue, C o l l e g e , Anchorage, Unalaska, and w i t h Canada and Denmark at Godhavn, Knob Lake and Mont J o l i . While observations were attempted at Thule and F r o b i s h e r Bay, the data were not s a t i s f a c t o r y . c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . The v e r t i c a l incidence sounders operated i n the a r c t i c regions provided a c o n t r o l for those i n the A n t a r c t i c . Marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n iono- s p h e r i c a c t i v i t y were noted between the a r c t i c and the a n t a r c t i c . Absorption s t u d i e s showed the importance of these s t u d i e s i n high l a t i t u d e s . These measurements have shown that radio wave absorption caused by low energy p a r t i c l e s trapped i n the magnetic f i e l d i s a much more common occurrence than had p r e v i o u s l y been thought. B a c k s c a t t e r data have made p o s s i b l e the t r a c k i n g of F-region d i s t u r b a n c e s and out- l i n e d t h e i r wave-like motion i n the atmosphere. I t has been p o s s i b l e to study t h e i r propagation over d i s t a n c e s as great as 10,000 km. Since the IGY program i n w h i s t l e r s was the f i r s t f u l l - s c a l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of these phenomena, the r e s u l t s were p r i m a r i l y d e f i n i t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r . However, s e v e r a l p a t t e r n s m the northern l a t i t u d e s have become apparent, i n c l u d i n g d a i l y and seasonal v a r i a t i o n and c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of l a t i t u d e c o n t r o l . 7. Meteorology (See Chapter V I I I , P r o j e c t s 8.9, 8.13, and Chapter XVI, P r o j e c t s 21 4, 21.11, 21 14) a. O b j e c t i v e s . For the f i r s t time, meteorological observations i n the polar regions made p o s s i b l e a comparison of atmospheric c r o s s s e c t i o n s from pole-to-pole. 848
ARCTIC RESEARCH b. Program. The major p o r t i o n of the a r c t i c IGY meteorological program was c a r r i e d out a t e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t i o n s but was augmented by s t u d i e s a t the A r c t i c Ocean d r i f t s t a t i o n s and other s i t e s . S p e c i a l observations included rawmsonde observations of atmospheric CO2, ozone^ s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , and heat f l u x . Upper a i r data was c o l l e c t e d by balloon-borne instrumentation launched from the s u r f a c e s t a t i o n s and was supplemented by a i r c r a f t o b s ervations. F l i g h t s were made by the U. S. A i r Force from Fairbanks to a point near the North Pole and r e t u r n , s t u d i e s were made a t the 700 mb (10,000 f t . ) and 500 mb (18,000 f t . ) s u r f a c e s . Standard dropsonde meteor- o l o g i c a l observations were made along the f l i g h t path over the A r c t i c Ocean. Rocket soundings were u t i l i z e d to measure temperature, p r e s s u r e , d e n s i t y , and winds a t high a l t i t u d e s . Most of these soundings were launched from F t . C h u r c h i l l but a few were launched from shipboard. c. P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s Data taken a t the a r c t i c s t a t i o n s has given meteor- o l o g i s t s a b e t t e r idea of a r c t i c c i r c u l a t i o n p atterns and i t s i n f l u e n c e on the middle l a t i t u d e s . Studies a t D r i f t S t a t i o n A on long wave r a d i a t i o n i n d i c a t e that more melting occurs under o v e r c a s t s k i e s long wave r a d i a t i o n and that f r e e z i n g may occur more r e a d i l y under sunny s k i e s because of in c r e a s e d outgoing r a d i a t i o n . 8. Nuclear R a d i a t i o n (See Chapter XIV) a. O b j e c t i v e s . IGY s t u d i e s of n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n were extended to a r c t i c s t a t i o n s i n order to give as complete as p o s s i b l e a p i c t u r e of r a d i o a c t i v e isotope d i s t r i b u t i o n , b. Program. The Naval Research Laboratory, Geophysics Research D i r e c t o r a t e of the Cambridge Research Center, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, New York Operations O f f i c e , U. S. P u b l i c Health S e r v i c e , and the U. S. Weather Bureau cooperated i n e s t a b l i s h i n g v a r i o u s types of s t a t i o n s for the c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s of r a d i o - a c t i v i t y . A v a r i e t y of c o l l e c t i o n methods were used. ( 1 ) gummed paper for depos- i t i o n of r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , ( 1 1 ) f i l t e r s f o r c o l l e c t i o n of airborne p a r t i c u l a t e r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , ( 1 1 1 ) pots f or c o l l e c t i o n of p r e c i p i t a t i o n and any other m a t e r i a l deposited, and ( i v ) s p e c i a l c o l l e c t i o n s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n , s u r f a c e waters, snow and i c e . c. P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s . Data from a l l s t a t i o n s i s being used to provide i n - formation on g l o b a l a i r c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s . 9. Oceanography (See Chapter IX, P r o j e c t s 9.1, 9.10, 9.17, 9.18, 9.19, 9.20, and Chapter XVI, P r o j e c t s 21.6, 21.14) a O b j e c t i v e s . Study of water masses, p a r t i c u l a r l y c u r r e n t systems, was a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t i v e of the IGY program. The A r c t i c Ocean system was studied from D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n s A and B. Tide gauges a t a r c t i c s t a t i o n s were part of the world- wide network of s t a t i o n s . b. Program Data on the c u r r e n t flow and p h y s i c a l and chemical p r o p e r t i e s of sea water were taken a t v a r i o u s depths, age determinations using C^^ and t r i t i u m techniques were made, bottom cores were taken and continuous depth recordings were made from d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n s m the A r c t i c Ocean. The program provided information on water c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h m the A r c t i c B a s i n and on the exchange of water between the A r c t i c Ocean and other oceans. The bottom cores permit comparison of A r c t i c Ocean sedimentation, s t r a t i g r a p h y and marine l i f e w i t h ocean bottom samples obtained i n other a r e a s . 849
ARCTIC RESEARCH c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . Studies conducted a t the two a r c t i c d r i f t s t a t i o n s were h i g h l i g h t e d by the d i s c o v e r y on DS-A of a submarine ridge a t approximately 85°N, 166-168°W, p a r a l l e l to the Lmononsov Ridge. Named the Alpha R i s e , i t has a minimum depth of 1426 m which i n c r e a s e s to 3000 m N and S. More s t u d i e s w i l l have to be made of i t s extent which i s only estimated to be 50 m i l e s long. 10. Rocketry (See Chapter X, P r o j e c t s 10.5 to 10.7, 10.14, 10.16, 10.17, 10.19, 10.20) a. O b j e c t i v e s . The program was designed to complement the programs of many s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s . I n t e r - d i s c i p l i n a r y s t u d i e s were c a r r i e d out i n atmospheric composition, s o l a r a c t i v i t y , aurora and airglow, geomagnetism, cosmic r a y s , and ionospheric p h y s i c s . b. Program. J o i n t US-Canadian rocket borne experiments were made a t F t . C h u r c h i l l , Canada. Aerobee, L o k i I I - D a r t , Nike-Asp and Nike-Cajun type r o c k e t s were used. I n a d d i t i o n , rockoons ( r o c k e t s f i r e d from high a l t i t u d e b a l l o o n s ) were launched from shipboard i n a r c t i c waters. (See Vol. XXXVI - Data Catalogue, Annals of the IGY for a complete l i s t of a r c t i c f i r i n g s and experiments.) c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . Studies from F t . C h u r c h i l l have r e v e a l e d that the d i s t r i u b t i o n of atmospheric pressure and temperature a t high l a t i t u d e s d i f f e r s from that a t low l a t i t u d e s and that the d e n s i t y i s under strong s o l a r i n f l u e n c e . 11 Seismology (See Chapter X I , P r o j e c t s 11.16, 11.18, 11.19, and Chapter XVI, P r o j e c t 20.6) a. Ob.iectives. S t a t i o n s conducting earthquake seismology were augmented m the a r c t i c and a program of r e f l e c t i o n and r e f r a c t i o n shooting were undertaken. b. Program. Earthquake seismograph s t a t i o n s operated by the U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey a t College and S i t k a , A l a s k a p r i o r to the IGY were continued. A new s t a t i o n a t Thule, Greenland was operated w i t h Wilson-Lamlson and Sprengnether instruments. A program of r e f l e c t i o n and r e f r a c t i o n shooting to determine ocean depth and s t r i k e and dip of the bottom was c a r r i e d out a t the d r i f t i n g s t a t i o n s . Cooperative long period wave programs were conducted a t Resolute, Canada and Uppsala, Sweden. c. P r e l i m i n a r y R e s u l t s . An unexpectedly l a r g e number of earthquakes were recorded a t the Thule s t a t i o n around the a r c t i c c i r c l e . I t was through the use of r e f l e c t i o n soundings from D r i f t i n g S t a t i o n A that the submarine r i s e (Alpha R i s e ) was f i r s t l o c a t e d . 850
