Consensus Study Report
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This study was supported by the American Petroleum Institute under Award Number 2018-112630, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management under Award Number 10004961, the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement under Award Number 140E0119P0018, Fisheries and Oceans Canada under Award Number 10005009, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative under Award Number SA-232014, and the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine’s Presidents’ Circle Fund. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-27429-6
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-27429-X
Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/26410
Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2022943781
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Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2022. Oil in the Sea IV: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26410.
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COMMITTEE ON OIL IN THE SEA IV
KIRSI K. TIKKA (NAE) (Chair), Maritime Advisor and Board Member at Maritime Companies, London, England, American Bureau of Shipping (ret.)
EDWIN “ED” LEVINE (Vice Chair), Scientific Support & Coordination, LLC, Neptune, New Jersey, NOAA (ret.)
AKUA ASA-AWUKU, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park
CYNTHIA BEEGLE-KRAUSE, SINTEF Trondheim, Norway (through October 2021)
VICTORIA BROJE, Shell Projects and Technology, Houston, Texas
STEVEN BUSCHANG, Texas General Land Office, Austin, Texas (through August 2021)
DAGMAR SCHMIDT ETKIN, Environmental Research Consulting, Cortland Manor, New York
JOHN FARRINGTON, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts (ret.)
JULIA FOGHT, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Canada (ret.)
BERNARD GOLDSTEIN (NAM), Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (ret.)
CARYS L. MITCHELMORE, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons
NANCY RABALAIS, Louisiana State University, College of the Coast and Environment, Baton Rouge
JEFFREY SHORT, JWS Consulting, Juneau, Alaska
SCOTT SOCOLOFSKY, Zachry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station
BERRIN TANSEL, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Florida International University, Miami
HELEN K. WHITE, Department of Chemistry, Haverford College, Pennsylvania
MICHAEL ZICCARDI, One Health Institute, University of California, Davis
Staff
KELLY OSKVIG, Study Director
MEGAN MAY, Associate Program Officer (through June 2021)
KENZA SIDI-ALI-CHERIF, Program Assistant (through December 2021)
GRACE CALLAHAN, Program Assistant
OCEAN STUDIES BOARD
LARRY A. MAYER (NAE) (Outgoing Chair), University of New Hampshire, Durham
CLAUDIA BENITEZ-NELSON (Incoming Chair), University of South Carolina, Columbia
MARK ABBOTT, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
CAROL ARNOSTI, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
LISA CAMPBELL, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
THOMAS S. CHANCE, ASV Global, LLC, Broussard, Louisiana (ret.)
DANIEL COSTA, University of California, Santa Cruz
JOHN DELANEY, University of Washington, Seattle (ret.)
SCOTT GLENN, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey
PATRICK HEIMBACH, The University of Texas at Austin
MARCIA ISAKSON, The University of Texas at Austin
LEKELIA JENKINS, Arizona State University, Tempe
NANCY KNOWLTON (NAS), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, District of Columbia (ret.)
ANTHONY MACDONALD, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, New Jersey
THOMAS MILLER, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons
S. BRADLEY MORAN, University of Alaska Fairbanks
RUTH M. PERRY, Shell Exploration & Production Company, Houston, Texas
JAMES SANCHIRICO, University of California, Davis
MARK J. SPALDING, The Ocean Foundation, Washington, District of Columbia
RICHARD SPINRAD, Oregon State University, Corvallis
ROBERT S. WINOKUR, Michigan Tech Research Institute, Silver Spring, Maryland
Staff
SUSAN ROBERTS, Director
STACEE KARRAS, Senior Program Officer
KELLY OSKVIG, Senior Program Officer
EMILY TWIGG, Senior Program Officer
MEGAN MAY, Associate Program Officer
ALEXANDRA SKRIVANEK, Associate Program Officer
VANESSA CONSTANT, Associate Program Officer
SHELLY-ANN FREELAND, Financial Business Partner
THANH NGUYEN, Financial Business Partner
KENZA SIDI-ALI-CHERIF, Program Assistant
ELIZABETH COSTA, Program Assistant
GRACE CALLAHAN, Program Assistant
Preface
Through the request and sponsorship of many agencies and industry, the National Academies conducted consensus studies leading to a series of published reports in 1975, 1985, and 2003 on inputs (including anthropogenic sources and natural seeps), fates, and effects of petroleum-based hydrocarbon mixtures in the sea. The reports have assessed the scope of the challenge and made recommendations for improvement in oil spill science, prevention, and mitigation of the impact of harmful discharges on the environment, and for reduction of inputs from operational and accidental discharges.
Almost 20 years have passed since the publication of Oil in the Sea III: Inputs, Fates, and Effects in 2003, and it has been more than a decade now since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Over this time, significant advances have been made in scientific methods to study detection, fates, and effects of oil in marine environments. In the fall of 2020, a committee of 17 members was convened for a consensus study titled Oil in the Sea IV: Inputs, Fates, and Effects, sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative, and the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine’s Presidents’ Circle Fund.
The committee was tasked to update the 2003 report with an emphasis on North American waters. Whereas earlier National Academies reports focused more on quantifying hydrocarbon inputs in the sea, the current report has extensive sections on fates and effects that incorporate increased knowledge in these fields, in addition to new estimates on the input inventories. The committee has also included the latest understanding on the effects of oil in the marine environment on human health, which was not covered by the previous report. Additionally, the report covers accidental spill mitigation, focusing on both prevention and response as it relates to reduction of inputs and minimizing effects. Across all topics in this report, an increased focus was also paid to the Arctic marine environment in this report.
The committee held several virtual public meetings where experts from federal and local governments, industry, indigenous communities, not-for-profit organizations, and academia were invited to talk to the committee on the current state and future needs of oil spill science and the impact of oil in the sea on coastal communities. These diverse voices helped inform and enrich the writing of this report, and we wish to thank each person for their service.
Committee members also reviewed an extensive amount of scientific literature and deliberated on the material in closed session. All meetings were held virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the conditions were not ideal for a consensus study, the committee worked collaboratively and diligently for more than 1 year, putting in long hours to prepare a report covering large amounts of new information. The committee members worked constructively as a team to formulate findings, conclusions, and recommendations for further advancement of knowledge of fates and effects, and for improvement in oil spill prevention and response. The updated volume is a major leap forward in depth and breadth of material included in the report. We would like to thank the committee members for their dedication, insightfulness, expertise, and invaluable contributions to complete the work under challenging circumstances.
We would also like to thank the National Academies staff for their support to the committee. We would like to express our special gratitude to Kelly Oskvig, Senior Program Officer, for her tireless energy and patience to organize meetings, presentations, and endless lists of other tasks. Additional support was provided by Susan Roberts, Ocean Studies Board Director, Megan May, Kenza Sidi-Al-Cherif, Grace Callahan, Stacee Karras, Caroline Bell, Elizabeth Costa, Leighann Martin, Safah Wyne, and other staff.
Finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to the sponsors who provided resources to make this important work possible. We hope that the report will be a useful reference and a source of information to the sponsors as well as to others who can benefit in their work or in their
daily lives from the increased knowledge contained in Oil in the Sea IV. To that end, the committee has made numerous recommendations for improving research and other activities in the future. Although the world is transitioning to non-hydrocarbon energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, hydrocarbons will remain in the energy and petrochemical streams until other sources are available at sufficient scale and competitive cost. It is nevertheless important to continue to advance the knowledge and understanding of the environmental concerns associated with fates and effects of oil in the sea. Preserving the natural ocean environment is essential to the well-being of our planet and we would like to acknowledge all the professionals and scientists who are dedicated to keeping our seas healthy.
Kirsi Tikka (NAE), Chair
Ed Levine, Vice Chair
Committee on Oil in the Sea IV
Reviewers
This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of the independent review process is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report, nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by RICHARD SEARS, Stanford University, and DAVID DZOMBAK, Carnegie Mellon University. They were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee and the National Academies.
Acknowledgments
This report was greatly enhanced by input from outside consultants and from a number of public information-gathering meetings during the study process. The committee thanks the consultant teams for their contribution to the report, including Rabia Ahmed, Gretchen Greene, and Jeri Sawyer (Greene Economics); Alyssa Garvin, DongJoo Joung, John Kessler, and Thomas Weber (University of Rochester), Samira Danashagar, Ian McDonald, Carrie O’Reilly, and Mauricio Silva (Florida State University); and Bill Meurer (ExxonMobil). The committee would like to thank all of the experts who presented during these meetings: Rita Colwell (Gulf of Mexico Research Institute), Tim Steffek (American Petroleum Institute), Candi Hudson (Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement [BSEE]), Walter Johnson (Bureau of Ocean Energy Management), Kenneth Lee (Fisheries and Oceans Canada), Carol Baillie (Interagency Coordinating Committee on Oil Pollution Research), Anabelle Nicolas-Kepec (International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited), Rob Cox (IPIECA), Eddie Murphy (Pipeline and Hazardous Material Safety Administration), Vicki Cornish (Marine Mammal Conservation), Henry Huntington (Ocean Conservancy), Alan Mearns (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA]), Bryan Domangue (BSEE), Jason Mathews (BSEE), Mary Kang (McGill University), Tara Yacovitch (Aerodyne), Wesley Williams (Oakridge National Laboratory), Jim Elliott (Teichman Group), Steve Hampton (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, ret.), Joost De Gouw (University of Colorado Boulder), Dana Tulis (U.S. Coast Guard [USCG]), Jeffrey Lantz (USCG), Odd Brakstad (SINTEF), Charles Greer (National Research Council Canada), Collin Ward (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), Roger Prince (ExxonMobil, ret.), Michel Boufadel (New Jersey Institute of Technology), Deborah French McCay (RPS Group), Sandro Galea (Boston University), Maureen Lichtveld (University of Pittsburgh), Mace Barron (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA]), Adriana Bejarano (Shell), Lori Schwacke (National Marine Mammal Foundation), Steve Murawski (University of Southern Florida), Ed Wirth (NOAA), John Incardona (NOAA), Jordi Dachs (Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, CSIS), Greg Challenger (Polaris Applied Sciences), Porfiro Álvarez-Torres (Consortium of Marine Research Institutions of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean), Casey Hubert (University of Calgary), Mindi Farber-DeAnda (Energy Information Administration), Dean Foreman (American Petroleum Institute), Tim Nedwed (ExxonMobil), Jodi Harney (CSA Ocean Sciences Inc.), Richard Camilli (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), Ellen Ramirez (NOAA), Jacqui Michel (Research Planning Inc.), Adam Davis (NOAA), Jeffrey Wickliffe (University of Alabama at Birmingham), Dan Villeneuve (U.S. EPA), Adam Biales (U.S. EPA), Amy Kukulya (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), Kelsey Leonard (University of Waterloo), Mây Nguy
n (Lowland Center), Simon Lambert (University of Saskatchewan), Vera Metcalf (Eskimo Walrus Commission), Ken Paul (Wolastoqey Nation), and Chief Shirell Parfair-Dardar (Grand Caillou/Dulac Band of Biloxi-Chitimacha-Choctaw). Their varied perspectives and expertise were invaluable to the creation of this report.
Contents
1.1 PRESENT AND FUTURE ENERGY NEEDS
1.1.2 Energy Needs of North America
1.2.2 Progress on Oil in the Sea III Recommendations
2 PETROLEUM AS A COMPLEX CHEMICAL MIXTURE
2.1.2 Definitions and Classifications of Petroleum
2.1.3 Oils or Fuels of Emerging Importance
2.1.3.2 Heavy Fuel Oils and Low Sulfur Fuel Oils
2.1.4.1 Gases, Volatile Organic Compounds, and BTEX
2.1.4.2 Saturates, Aromatics, Resins, and Asphaltenes (SARA) and Other Chemicals in Petroleum
2.1.5 Physical Chemical Properties of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
2.1.6 General Sources of Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment
2.1.7 Sampling and In Situ Observations and Analyses
2.2 PHASES AND STATES OF PETROLEUM FLUIDS IN THE SEA
2.2.2 Advances in Analytical Chemistry Methods
2.2.2.1 Ultraviolet Fluorescence Analyses as a Sample Screening Method and Related Advances
2.2.2.2 Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography (GC×GC) and GC×GC Mass Spectrometry (GC×GC-MS)
2.2.2.3 Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS)
2.2.2.6 Carbon Isotope (13C, 14C) Measurements of Environmental Samples
2.3 THERMODYNAMICS OF MIXTURES OF OILS
3.4.1 Extraction of Oil and Gas
3.4.2.3 Aircraft Fuel Jettison
3.5.1 Exploration and Production of Oil and Gas
3.5.1.1 Estimation of Oil Inputs from Spills Resulting from Exploration and Production
3.5.2 Spills Caused by Natural Hazards
3.5.3 Aging Infrastructure and Decommissioning Leakage
3.5.4 Transportation of Oil and Gas
3.5.4.3 Non-Tank Vessel Spills
3.5.4.4 Transportation by Rail
3.5.4.5 Coastal Storage Facilities
3.5.5 Potentially Polluting Sunken Wrecks
4.1.1 Salvage as Source Control for Vessel Spills
4.2.1.2 Common Operating Picture and Information Management Systems
4.2.1.3 Classification of Coastal Environments and Environmental Sensitivity Index
4.2.1.5 Response Research and Development
4.2.2 Monitoring and Assessment
4.2.2.1 Surface Oil Detection and Monitoring
4.2.2.2 Oil Detection and Monitoring in the Water Column
4.2.2.3 Oil Spill Detection Above and Under Ice
4.2.2.4 Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technologies
4.2.2.5 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique
4.2.3.1 Monitored Natural Attenuation and Biodegradation
4.2.3.5 Summary of Offshore Response Techniques
4.2.3.6 Submerged and Sunken Oil Response
4.2.4 Shoreline Protection and Cleanup
4.2.4.1 Advanced Shoreline Cleanup Techniques
4.2.5 Comparison of Response Options for Decision-Making
4.2.5.1 Consensus Ecological Risk Assessment
4.2.5.2 Spill Impact Mitigation Assessment
4.2.5.3 Comparative Risk Assessment
4.2.6 Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation
4.3 CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
5.1.1 Major Advances in the Past 20 Years
5.1.2 Chapter Structure and Caveats
5.2 FUNDAMENTAL TRANSPORT AND WEATHERING PROCESSES
5.2.1 Phases and States of Petroleum Fluids in the Sea
5.2.2 Immiscible Dynamics of Oil and Gas in Seawater: Sheens, Slicks, Bubbles, and Droplets
5.2.2.3 Oil Droplet Breakup and Dispersion
5.2.2.4 Effects of Chemical Dispersants on Droplet Breakup
5.2.3 Transport and Dilution of Oil and Gas in the Sea
5.2.4 Routes to and from the Atmosphere: Evaporation, Aerosolization, and Atmospheric Re-deposition
5.2.4.1 Primary Atmospheric Pollutants
5.2.4.2 Formation of Secondary Pollutants
5.2.4.3 Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants in the Marine Environment
5.2.6.1 Dissolution Mass Transfer from Floating Oil
5.2.6.2 Dissolution Mass Transfer from Suspended Gas and Oil
5.2.8 Microbial Biodegradation of Oil
5.2.8.1 Microbes in the Sea: Who Is Out There and How We Know
5.2.8.2 Biodegradation: Why Microbes Are Important to Oil in the Sea
5.2.8.3 The Physical State of Oil Influences Its Bioavailability
5.2.8.4 The Chemical Composition of Oil Influences Its Biodegradation
5.2.8.5 Biodegradation Kinetics: Measuring Rates of Biodegradation
5.2.8.6 Biodegradation Changes the Chemical Composition of Oils
5.2.8.7 Biodegradation Changes the Physical Properties and Behavior of Oils
5.2.8.8 General Environmental Factors Affecting Biodegradation
5.2.9 Examples of Oil Spill Budgets
5.2.9.1 Caveats on Oil Budgets
5.2.9.2 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Budget
5.2.9.3 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Budget
5.2.9.4 M/T Athos I Oil Budget
5.3 OIL FATES IN SPECIFIC MARINE ENVIRONMENTS: EPISODIC INPUTS
5.3.1 Sea Surface Processes Affecting Oil Fate
5.3.1.1 Initial Spreading of Oil on Surface Waters
5.3.1.2 Wind Drift and Stokes Drift
5.3.1.3 Natural and Chemical Dispersion of Oil in Near-Surface Waters
5.3.1.4 Other Processes Affecting Surface and Near-Surface Oil
5.3.2 Processes Affecting Oil in the Water Column
5.3.2.1 Sorption of Oil to Mineral Particles
5.3.2.2 Sorption of Oil to Organic Particles: Marine Oil Snow (MOS) and MOSSFA
5.3.2.4 Submergence and Sinking of Heavy Oils and Semi-Solid Oils
5.3.3 Deep Sea and Deep Sediment Processes
5.3.3.1 Plume Dynamics and Intrusion Formation
5.3.3.2 Bubble and Droplet Breakup from Subsurface Leaks
5.3.3.3 Formation of Natural Gas Hydrates
5.3.3.4 Gas Ebullition and Dissolution
5.3.3.5 Effects of Subsea Dispersant Injection
5.3.3.6 Sedimentation and Burial of Oil
5.3.4 Shorelines and Near-Shore Sediments
5.3.4.1 Behavior of Oil in Shorelines
5.3.5 Arctic Marine Systems and Sea Ice
5.3.5.1 Effects of Low Temperatures and Sea Ice on Oil Behavior and Chemistry
5.3.5.2 Effect of Low Temperature on Oil Biodegradation
5.3.5.3 Biodegradation Within and Below Sea Ice
5.3.5.5 Arctic Seafloor Sediments, Deep Seeps, and Shorelines
5.4 FATES IN SPECIFIC MARINE ENVIRONMENTS: CHRONIC INPUTS
5.4.4 Fates of Oil from Riverine Sources
5.4.5 Fates of Oil in Coastal Ecosystems: Monitoring PAH Profiles in Sediments and Bivalves
5.5 MODELING THE TRANSPORT AND FATE OF SPILLED OIL
5.5.2.1 Integrated Oil Spill Models
5.5.3 Model Validation and Uncertainty
5.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
6.3.1 Toxicity from Physical Contact
6.3.1.2 Impaired Thermoregulation
6.3.2.1 Gastrointestinal Tract Damage
6.3.2.4 Immune System Impairment
6.3.2.6 Cardiovascular Impairments
6.3.2.7 Hormonal System Disruption
6.3.3 Toxicity from Inhalation
6.3.4 Toxicity from Absorption of Soluble Oil Components
6.3.4.2 Cardiovascular Impairment
6.3.4.3 Photoenhanced Toxicity
6.3.4.4 Immune System Impairment
6.4 LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES IN INTERPRETING LABORATORY TOXICITY DATA
6.4.1 Implications of the Variability in the Design, Execution and Reporting of Toxicity Tests
6.5 EFFECTS ON POPULATIONS, COMMUNITIES, AND ECOSYSTEMS
6.5.1 Limitations and Challenges
6.5.1.2 Baseline and Long-Term Data
6.5.1.3 Inability to Achieve Appropriate Experimental Designs
6.5.1.5 Before-and-After Controlled Experiments Versus Inferential Observations
6.5.3.2 Mangrove Communities (ESI 10)
6.5.3.3 Sheltered Rocky Shores (ESI 8)
6.5.3.4 Seagrass Communities (no ESI category)
6.5.3.5 Tidal Flats (ESI 7 and 9)
6.5.3.6 Sandy Beaches (ESI 3 and 4)
6.5.4.1 Intertidal and Subtidal Coral Reefs
6.5.4.2 Mesophotic and Deep-Sea, Cold-Water Corals
6.5.5.1 Continental Shelf Soft Sediments
6.5.5.2 Deep-Sea Soft Sediments
6.5.6.2 Phytoplankton Communities
6.5.6.3 Zooplankton Communities
6.5.6.5 Fish and Other Water-Column Inhabitants
6.5.6.6 Produced Water Discharges
6.5.7.3 Indirect Effects and Trophic Cascades
6.5.7.4 Ecosystem-Level Effects
6.6 EFFECTS IN ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTS
6.6.1 Marine Ecosystems in the North American Arctic
6.6.2 Arctic Marine Organisms Vulnerable to Oil Pollution
6.7.1 Overview of Fate, Exposure, and Toxicity Models
6.7.2 Models to Estimate Aquatic Toxicity to Individuals
6.7.2.1 Narcosis Target Lipid Models
6.7.2.3 De Minimiz Risk Models
6.7.2.4 The Dispersant and Chemically Dispersed Oil Toxicity Database (DTox)
6.7.2.5 CAFE and Species-Sensitivity Distributions
6.7.2.6 Interspecies Correlation Estimation Models
6.7.3 Limitations and Challenges of Modeling Approaches
6.8.1 Components and Derivatives of Crude Oil of Known Importance to Human Health Effects
6.8.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Oil in the Sea
6.8.3 Methodological Approaches to Estimating Human Exposure
6.8.4 Human Susceptibility Factors Related to the Potential Toxicity of Oil in the Sea
6.8.5.3 Other Longer-Term Effects
6.8.6 Toxicity of Crude Oil Components of Particular Concern
6.8.6.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
6.8.6.2 Benzene and Alkyl Benzenes
6.8.8 Human Health Effects Due to Oil Spilled in the Sea: Mental and Behavioral Effects
6.8.8.1 Evidence of Disasters as a Cause of Mental and Behavioral Health Effects
6.8.9 Dinoflagellate Toxin Poisoning
6.8.10 Other Effects on Human Health: Workers Health and Safety
6.8.12 Vulnerability of Humans to Oil Pollution in the Arctic
6.9 CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
7.1 QUANTIFICATION OF OIL IN THE SEA
7.4 DATA TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE
7.5 FRAMEWORK TO ADVANCE THE RESEARCH
7.6 RESEARCH NEEDS TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE
A NORTH AMERICAN ZONE DESCRIPTIONS
C ESTIMATING LAND-BASED SOURCES OF OIL IN THE SEA
D REGIONAL VALUES OF WATER-TO-OIL RATIO FOR CALCULATING INPUTS FROM PRODUCED WATER
E COMMON SHORELINE RESPONSE OPTIONS
F TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF EQUATIONS AND MODELS FOR DROPLET BREAKUP IN TURBULENT FLOWS
G CLASSIFICATION OF INTERTIDAL, SUBTIDAL, ICE, AND ON-WATER AREAS
