Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools (2022)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

137   This chapter describes the transportation initiatives that can be used to foster FELUs. The pur- pose of this chapter is to familiarize planners and stakeholders with various initiatives that they can consider implementing to improve the efficiency of freight and reduce the externalities of the freight system. Figure 23 shows the transportation initiatives that are discussed in this chapter. The dozens of transportation initiatives included in this chapter are grouped in eight areas: facilities and infrastructure management; parking and loading areas management; vehicle-related strategies; traffic management; pricing, incentives, and taxation; logistics management; freight demand management; and stakeholder engagement. Similar to the land-use initiatives, discussed in Chapter 7, each of the transportation initiatives includes a brief summary of the initiative and an exhibit that provides an overview of implementation barriers, advantages and disadvantages, and examples. This chapter complements Chapter 7, the overview of land-use initiatives. The joint initiatives, on the left side of Figure 23, are initiatives where the collaboration, intervention, or approval of both land-use and transportation agencies may be needed or advised. It is important to highlight the potential role of combining the power of TIA, a transportation initiative discussed in this chapter; and conditional use requirements, a land-use initiative dis- cussed in Chapter 7. TIAs are used to ensure that developments that exceed a threshold of traffic generated implement traffic and highway engineering improvements to mitigate the impacts of the development in the nearby intersections (the network-wide impacts are typically disregarded). In contrast, a conditional use requirement is a zoning exception that allows property owners use of their land in a way that is not otherwise permitted within the particular zoning district (FreeAdvice Legal 2020). Conditional use requirements and TIAs could be used to foster FELUs by requiring that the property owner and the developer agree on the implementation of a selected set of the land-use initiatives discussed in Chapter 7, as well as transportation initiatives in this chapter. 9.1 Facilities and Infrastructure Management These initiatives use infrastructure improvements to enhance freight mobility. Such enhance- ments are often necessary because both truck size and traffic have increased over the past few decades, making some roadways and buildings inadequate and unable to support current freight traffic volumes. In addition to infrastructure improvement, investing in and enhancing facilities— intermodal terminals, freight clusters, and the like—is also important. The initiatives involving freight facilities are also discussed in Chapter 7. 9.1.1 Major Improvements Initiatives considered for major infrastructure improvements often require large expenditures and fairly elaborate planning efforts. C H A P T E R 9 Overview of Transportation Initiatives

138 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Figure 23. Transportation initiatives.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 139   Initiative T1: Ring Roads This initiative seeks to shift through-trucks that would otherwise travel through the city to ring roads in the urban periphery. Ring roads only work if they lead to cost savings to the carriers; without proper land-use planning, they can create excess sprawl, and they require large capital investments, elaborate needs assessments, and impact analyses. Studies to evaluate ring roads should analyze truck traffic, temporal patterns and their environmental impacts, and other complementary measures (PIARC 2011). The location of traffic generators also needs to be studied to determine where the proposed ring road and its potential interchanges would most effectively improve mobility. Exhibit  53 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T1. Initiative T2: New and Upgraded Infrastructure Initiatives of this type focus on enhancing the geometric design and physical characteristics of current roadways, railways, and intermodal terminals to accommodate freight traffic. Market studies must be performed to ensure that investments in these facilities would generate enough intended effects to justify the costs. New or upgraded roads are often considered to address the wider turning radii of trucks (Ogden 1992); trucks unable to make right turns without interfering with oncoming traffic, or cutting across sidewalks; and trucks unable to travel under overpasses, among other issues (Rhodes et al. 2012). An U.S. example of this type of initiative is the Atlanta freight corridors included in the Georgia Freight Logistics Plan 2010–2050 (Georgia Department of Transportation 2011a). Railway enhancements face the same obstacles as road-related improvements. Unlike roads and bridges, however, rail infrastructure is primarily owned by private-sector companies, which only make physical improvements if their return on investment can meet expected thresholds. An additional limiting factor is the lack of public funding available to build new or upgraded railways. Nonetheless, some federal funds are available through the FAST Act through the National Highway Freight Program, established to improve the efficient movement of freight on the National Highway Freight Network (Federal Highway Administration 2016b). Also, the FAST Act allowed a multimodal surface transportation bill that authorized more than $10 billion for both intercity passenger and freight rail grants (U.S. Department of Trans- portation 2019). Similarly, upgrades of intermodal terminals could have beneficial effects on freight sys- tems by fostering mode shifts to rail. Given that each mode independently strives to increase its market share in freight activities, cooperation is key to intermodal terminal success, and representatives must commit to the global operation and the overarching benefits that the terminal will return to the system. Exhibit 54 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T2. Initiative T3: Multimodal Logistics Developments (Joint) This initiative allows convenient transfers between different modes of transport, such as different types of trucks, trains, and boats. These developments may include other uses, such as sorting and warehousing, aiming to coordinate product supply chains and facilitate the movement of goods from one mode to another. By combining modes of transportation within a logistics center, opportunities arise for companies, such as broadening their shipping and receiving capabilities. Building such a development could incur very high costs, hence the need for elaborate market studies to ensure that the investment in constructing a new development justifies the high cost. The developments can be located near the outskirts of the city, which may help reduce freight traffic going into dense urban areas. However, these reductions would

140 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools be more significant if the development were located inside the city itself, where goods can be transported by cleaner modes (e.g., electric trucks and cargo bikes). The location of these devel- opments should be chosen while taking into consideration the increase in traffic in the sur- rounding areas. A good approach to address this problem is to reduce the trips coming into the development by either supplying all goods transferred by large trucks in off-peak hours or by increasing other mode shares such as barges or rails. This would decrease the congestion caused by large trailers coming into the development during rush hours. Exhibit 55 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T3. Initiative T4: Freight Cluster Development (Joint) Freight clusters foster the relocation of large freight users, such as distribution centers, manu- facturers, truck terminals, and intermodal facilities to a specific area, typically at the urban fringe. Locating a freight cluster far away from the urban core means that small trucks have to travel longer distances to complete their deliveries, increasing VMT on the last leg of the supply chain. The concept of freight clustering is a relatively recent development in the United States, though it is common in Europe (Smart Growth Network and ICMA 2002). Freight clusters could lead to small reductions in truck traffic given that a portion of the B2B freight traffic that normally takes place in the city would take place inside the facility (Allen and Browne 2010). The impact on overall congestion is very small because the B2B traffic in the clusters represents a minuscule proportion of the total truck traffic in the city. The noise and other negative effects generated inside and around the freight village are great disadvantages for local communities. For a discus- sion of success factors in Europe, see European Freight Villages and their Success Factors (Nobel 2011). Freight clusters require large tracks of land, initial investments, and coordination efforts. The main benefits of freight clusters are to preserve space for freight-intensive activities inside the metropolitan area, but outside of the central business district. The large benefits of constructing freight clusters compensate for the large costs of implementation due to the agglomeration of economies, which increase the efficiency of the cluster as a whole. Exhibit 56 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T4. Initiative T5: Multistory Logistics Developments (Joint) Multistory logistics developments target the problems of land availability by expanding ware- houses vertically. This can save land space and make use of vacant vertical space, which is a good alternative for the limited land availability in highly dense cities. The cost of such structures can vary depending on their size and location. These developments might have a part of their area dedicated to ramps for large trucks to reach the upper levels of the development; designers can consider using freight elevators or cranes to reduce the area dedicated to ramps, as saving space is the main objective of these developments. The allocation of these developments should be considered carefully, because the trucks going in or coming out of it will increase traffic in the surrounding areas. Hence, public agencies need to study the unintended consequences of implementing this initiative for each proposed location. This initiative is important to address the increased demand on industrial spaces due to the continuous rise of e-commerce accom- panied by the limited supply of lands within dense cities. In the United States, there are currently five multistory developments being built, one in Seattle, Washington, one in San Francisco, California, and three in Brooklyn and Bronx, New York. The locations have been chosen because of their high densities, high e-commerce demand, and the limited location opportunities for last-mile facilities (Supply Chain Dive 2018). Exhibit 57 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T5. Initiative T6: Urban Consolidation Centers (Joint) UCCs are facilities that seek to reduce freight traffic in a target area by consolidating cargo at a terminal. In theory, carriers that might otherwise make separate trips to the target area with

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 141   relatively low load factors will instead transfer their loads to a neutral carrier that consolidates the cargo and conducts the last leg of the deliveries. The carriers pay the UCC operator a fee per delivery made, and save money by not having to make the final leg of the delivery themselves (Holguín-Veras et al. 2008a). During the 1940s, the PANYNJ implemented what would be the first modern UCCs; these operations closed down in the 1950s because of union opposition and a lack of carrier participation (Doig 2001; 2010). More recently, UCCs have been attempted in a number of European and Japanese cities in response to government incentives (Taniguchi and Nemoto 2003; Browne et al. 2005; Panero and Shin 2011). Most UCCs are small operations that focus on a section of a city or on individual buildings, such as the Shinjuku UCC in Japan. UCCs have a mixed success record; however, because they have struggled to attract a sufficient number of users. Some obstacles UCCs face include competitive pressures that push suppliers away from participation; overall costs that are frequently higher than direct deliveries, once the UCC’s space costs are included (Kawamura and Lu 2008); and the difficulty of finding enough suitable space for a UCC in urban areas, where property is at a premium and often unavailable (Browne et al. 2005; Transport & Travel Research Ltd. and Transport Research Laboratory 2010; Van Rooijen and Quak 2010; Quak and Tavasszy 2011; Holguín-Veras et al. 2012b). As a consequence, public subsidies are often necessary, and if the subsidies do not materialize, most UCC operations come to an end. An important consideration when plan- ning UCCs relates to insurance. Before operation begins, who will be responsible for lost or damaged goods during the process should be determined. In a traditional delivery system, it is more straightforward to determine where the damage occurred, but in a UCC—where additional layers of handling occur—it is necessary to have a system that assigns responsi- bility during the various stages of consolidation and delivery. Exhibit 58 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T6. Initiative T7: Urban Distribution Centers (Joint) This initiative focuses on creating urban distribution centers for last-mile deliveries located in dense areas in central locations. They can be off-street, such as container hubs, or inside buildings. These centers are used to redistribute the goods arriving in large trucks into smaller, environmentally friendly modes (e.g., electric vans, cargo bikes, or even on foot). This initia- tive helps reduce congestion and pollution within city centers by shifting to cleaner modes and reducing the VMT by larger trucks. However, the location of such facilities should be carefully selected while taking into consideration proximity to the destination. Urban distribution centers have been implemented in multiple locations around the world. An interesting variant of the urban distribution center is the mini-distribution center, which typically entails the use of small containers to temporarily store consumer goods in nearby parking facilities or other public spaces. Typically, these containers are either deposited there or replenished during the off hours. From there, the final deliveries can be made with either handcarts of freight bikes. One of the examples is in Hamburg, Germany, where UPS started implementing this initiative in 2012. Four containers were placed in locations within the city in the weekdays to act as a small temporary distribution center. The deliveries were done by cargo bikes or on foot starting from these locations. In working days, this has removed 7 to 10 delivery vans in central Hamburg. The city of Frankfurt am Main also implemented this initiative with the collaboration of UPS. The deliveries starting from the mini-distribution center were done by electric cargo bikes or hybrid trucks. This reduced CO2 emissions in the city by 25.5 tons in 300 days of operation; it also helped reduce noise pollution and improve air quality in the center of the city (Eltis 2018). Exhibit 59 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T7. 9.1.2 Minor Improvements Initiatives associated with minor improvements are relatively less costly, though they still require analysis of the anticipated costs and benefits involved before implementation.

142 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Initiative T8: Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes Designed to accommodate the acceleration and deceleration profile of trucks, these improve- ments allow trucks to seamlessly merge into traffic. State and local agencies have made efforts to deal with issues arising from the increase of truck traffic (Douglas 2003). A comprehensive report covering truck climbing lanes and including real-world experiences; lessons learned from previous implementations; typical issues planners face early in the planning process; and a framework and methods for evaluating the benefits and impacts of truck facilities can be found in the Handbook for Planning Truck Facilities on Urban Highways (Douglas 2004). Exhibit 60 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T8. Initiative T9: Removal of Geometric Constraints at Intersections The geometry of intersections in older developments, particularly old sections of cities, poses tremendous challenges to delivery trucks. Although a wholesale redesign of intersections may not be appropriate, it is advisable to improve the geometry at selected problem intersections. Restricting access to large trucks may offer a short-term solution, though it may not be appro- priate for zones where heavy large-truck traffic is unavoidable. In those cases, a lack of adequate geometric design will significantly impact traffic and safety; removing geometric constraints may therefore be necessary. New developments must ensure appropriate street geometry for truck operations. Exhibit 61 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T9. Initiative T10: Ramps for Handcarts and Forklifts This program involves building ramps on sidewalks to accommodate forklifts or handcarts to improve the efficiency of loading and unloading activities (Ogden 1992). These ramps make it easy for drivers to deliver larger quantities of cargo, which significantly reduces the time spent in parking and loading areas, increasing the areas’ capacity to accommodate freight vehicles. The ramps also allow a truck to park once to unload its goods for a general location, then to break up the load and distribute it to multiple nearby sites, such as having a single drop-off and pickup location for multiple shippers or receivers, with self-pickups and drop-offs using handcarts. Exhibit 62 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T10.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 143   Ring Roads Description: The construction of bypasses (high speed ring roads, or beltways) is used to move through-trucks to the periphery of the urban area. This initiative is only viable if the ring roads lead to cost savings to carriers. Targeted mode: Through traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The cost and effort to construct a new ring road can be very high, involving construction of a new roadway, roadway crossings, and interchanges. Such a construction project will involve long-term planning and implementation, elaborate needs assessments, and impact analyses. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances safety • Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces infrastructure damage Disadvantages: • High probability for unintended consequences - May lead to new development outside urban core - Environmental impacts on the communities affected by the new road • Environmental impacts associated with new con- struction • Requires very high capital investments • Requires private-sector acceptance Typical example: • Sydney Orbital Network, Australia (Transport for NSW 2012) Source: (OpenStreetMap Contributors 2010) • “Through” Corridors in Atlanta, Georgia, United States (Georgia Department of Transportation 2011c) Source: (Georgia Department of Transportation 2011b) Related alternatives: New and Upgraded Infrastructure; Intermodal Terminals; Truck Routes; Exclusive Truck Lanes References: Marquez et al. (2004); PIARC (2011) Exhibit 53. Initiative T1: Ring roads.

144 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools New and Upgraded Infrastructure (a) New and Upgraded Roads Description: Enhance the geometric design and physical characteristics of current roadways. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastructure and enhance safety Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Extensive stakeholder involvement and an assessment of all potential impacts (positive and negative), both inside and outside the study area, should factor into planning. Costs of implementation range from short-term, inexpensive maintenance to very high construction and reconstruction costs of new truck routes or lanes. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances livability • Enhances safety for bicyclists and pedestrians • Facilitates multimodal freight Disadvantages: • Has moderate probability for unintended conse- quences • Has environmental impacts associated with new construction • Requires very high capital investments • May increase traffic on improved roadway • May require private-sector investments Examples: • Lorry Route Network, Suffolk County, England (Suffolk County Council 2013) • Atlanta Freight Corridors, Atlanta, GA (Georgia Department of Transportation 2011a) • US-281 and Loop 1604 Super Street (San Antonio, TX) • Alum Creek Drive Reverse Crossbow Interchange (Franklin County Engineer, OH) Source: (Georgia Department of Transportation 2011b) Related alternatives: Ring Roads; Freight Cluster Development; Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking outside Metropolitan Areas References: Ogden (1992); Woudsma (2001); Georgia Department of Transportation (2011a); Suffolk County Council (2011); Rhodes et al. (2012) Exhibit 54. Initiative T2: New and upgraded infrastructure.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 145   (b) New and Upgraded Railways Description: Construct new rail lines or upgrades to existing rail lines. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastructure and enhance safety Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Costs will vary depending on whether a project modifies existing infrastructure or involves new construction. Generally, the costs associated with this type of initiative are very high. Planning should involve public and private sectors; projects will require availability of both types of funding, given that most rail infrastructure is privately owned and operated. Advantages: • Enhances safety • Facilitates multimodal freight • Reduces VMT • Reduces congestion • Reduces infrastructure damage Disadvantages: • May require very high capital investments • May require private-sector investments • Requires extensive coordination and integration be- tween stakeholders because the rail network is mainly owned by private-sector entities • Has moderate probability for unintended conse- quences - May impact competitiveness of alternate modes Examples: • CREATE Project implemented in Chicago, IL (CREATE 2003) • Revitalizing rail freight in Wielkopolska, Slovenia (Castle 2009) • Alameda Corridor in California [Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority (ACTA) 2013] Source: [Alameda Corridor Transportation Authority (ACTA) 2013] Related alternatives: Ring Roads; Freight Cluster Development; Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking outside of Metropolitan Areas References: CREATE (2003); Douglas (2003); Ballis (2006); Castle (2009); Department for Transport (2010b) Exhibit 54. (Continued).

146 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools (c) New and Upgraded Intermodal Terminals Description: Use or construct terminals and other transfer facilities to move freight between trucks and other modes of transportation. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastructure and enhance safety Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Costs and effort depend on the type of project: a new intermodal terminal or improvements to an existing terminal. Creation of master plans to include intermodal conditions is less expensive than the very high cost of constructing a new facility. Extensive stakeholder engagement is necessary, as is an assessment of positive and negative impacts for all economic agents involved. The construction of new facilities may require a lengthy implementation period. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances economic competitiveness • Facilitates intermodal freight Disadvantages: • May require very high capital investments • Requires long implementation times • Requires cooperation between multiple stakehold- ers • Has moderate probability of unintended conse- quences - Increased perceived noise in the surrounding areas - Increased traffic in the vicinity of terminal - Potential land-use conflicts Examples: • Southern California Intermodal Terminals, California (Southern California Edison 2007) • Ohio’s Intermodal Railroad Terminals, OH (Ohio Rail Development Commission 2012) • Motorways of the Sea in Europe (MOSES 2001) Source: (Port of Los Angeles 2013b) Related alternatives: Ring Roads; Freight Cluster Development; Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking outside Metropolitan Areas References: MOSES (2001); Southern California Edison (2007) Exhibit 54. (Continued).

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 147   (d) New and Upgraded Railroad Grade Separations Description: Construct railroad grade separations. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastructure, enhance safety, and reduce delays Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Costs and efforts depend on the scope of the project and the complexity of the grade crossing. Due to the extensive planning and design considerations that should be taken into account, these projects are often expensive. Extensive stakeholder engagement is necessary, as is an assessment of positive and negative impacts for all economic agents involved. The reconstruction of grade crossings may require a lengthy implementation period. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces risk and maintenance for the railroads • Increases safety • Increases corridor reliability Disadvantages: • May require very high capital investments • Requires significant coordination with railroads • Requires cooperation between multiple stakehold- ers Examples: • Highway 307 Overpass of Norfolk Southern Railroad Outside of Port of Savannah (Pendered 2012) Grade separation of State Route 307 over the rail line outside the Port of Savannah Source: (Pendered 2012) Related alternatives: Ring Roads; Freight Cluster Development; Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking outside Metropolitan Areas References: Pendered (2012); Port of Los Angeles (2013b) Exhibit 54. (Continued).

148 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Multimodal Logistics Developments Description: Multimodal Logistics Developments allow access of more than one mode of transportation, support con- venient transfer between modes, and encourage the use of larger capacity transportation modes. These developments may include other uses, such as sorting and warehousing. This initiative aims to enhance freight efficiency, and reduce systematic inefficiencies, logistics sprawl, and livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area, Corridor Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: The expected costs vary by the type of project based on the existing infrastructure prior to implementing the development. The cost and level of effort to implement are directly related to the desired size and goals of the development. The implementation time can be long for constructing new facilities. Extensive cooper- ation between multiple stakeholders is also needed. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Carriers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Building Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Facilitates transfer between modes • Promotes economic growth in surrounding areas • Enhances competition Disadvantages: • May require high investments • Increases traffic in surrounding areas • May require long implementation time • Requires extensive cooperation between multiple stakeholders • Decreases the residents’ desire to move to the area Examples: • Alliance Global Logistics Hub, TX. The development, which lies less than 50 minutes from Dallas and 20 minutes from Fort Worth, includes a railway facility, an airport, and access to major highways and regional sort hubs for major carriers (UPS, FedEx, and Amazon). (Alliance Texas 2020) • Chapelle International logistics hotel, Paris, France. A four- story 45,000 m2 development in north Paris that includes an urban freight indoor rail terminal and urban distribution center. It allows shipment consolidation and transfers to cleaner modes. It also includes other land uses (e.g., urban farm, tennis courts, offices, and data center. (BESTFACT 2012; Dablanc 2019) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Multistory Lo- gistics Developments; Foster Logistics Mixed Use Complementary transportation initiatives: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Freight Demand Man- agement References: BESTFACT (2012); Dablanc (2019); Alliance Texas (2020) Source: (BESTFACT 2012; Dablanc 2019) Exhibit 55. Initiative T3: Multimodal logistics developments.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 149   Freight Cluster Development Description: Concentrate freight-intensive facilities, such as distribution centers, manufacturers, truck terminals, and intermodal facilities into a single location, typically at the urban fringe, to provide efficiency and economies of scale. Cluster development is a common land-use approach that consolidates a single type of activity in an area to reduce that activity’s negative impacts on other areas, such as residential developments. Geographic scope: City/MSA Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, All traffic, LTGs Expected costs and level of effort: Freight clusters are master plan developments that are sometimes proposed by developers due to their higher returns on investment despite the high costs. These clusters have large returns because of increased efficiency by maximizing the agglomeration of economies. The high costs can be shared between public and private sectors, where the cost of land purchase may be assumed by the public sector and the costs of construction may be assumed mostly by the private sector. Since the intention of this initiative is to concentrate freight activities in one location, coordinated efforts are required, involving the public sector, private sector, and the communities. The implementation and construction of freight cluster development takes a long time. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Trade Associations, Producers, Carriers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Enhances operational efficiency • Enhances livability • Reduces freight activity inside urban areas Disadvantages: • Requires very high capital investment (land acquisi- tion and construction) • Requires extensive cooperation between stakeholders • Has environmental impacts associated with new con- struction • Has moderate to low probability of unintended conse- quences - Increased perceived noise in surrounding areas - Increased traffic in the vicinity of terminal Examples: • Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park, Columbus, OH: A former Air Force base of 1,777 acres capable of accommodating 30 million square feet of development. The park has different campuses for rail, air, and truck transportation (Duke Realty News 2015; Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park 2020). • Pureland Industrial Complex, NJ: An industrial park with 3,000 acres located in the Philadelphia metropolitan area. It includes facilities for different purposes (e.g., ware- houses; distribution centers; manufacturing complexes; offices; and research and de- velopment facilities) (Pureland Industrial Complex 2020). Related land-use initiatives: Relocate LTGs, If Warranted; Logistics Land Reserves, Multimodal Logistics Develop- ments; Create Logistics-Focused Land Banking, Zoning; Site and Building Design; Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation Complementary transportation initiatives: New and Upgraded Infrastructure; Freight Demand Management; Time- Slotting Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs References: Smart Growth Network and ICMA (2002); Castle (2009); Allen and Browne (2010); C-LIEGE (2010); Department for Transport (2010b); Nobel (2011); Duke Realty News (2015); Pureland Industrial Complex (2020); Rickenbacker Global Logistics Park (2020) Source: (Duke Realty News 2015) Exhibit 56. Initiative T4: Freight cluster development.

150 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Multistory Logistics Developments Description: Multistory logistics developments are vertically expanded warehouses used for logistics. These develop- ments can save land space and make use of vacant vertical space. This alternative to single story logistics provides a practical solution for limited land availability in highly dense cities. Increasing the efficiency of land use for logistics activities reduces logistics sprawl, livability issues due to freight traffic, and livability issues due to freight facilities. Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: Constructing a multistory logistics development varies in cost depending mostly on its nature of operation, size, and location. However, the cost can be very high due to the land costs in already highly dense cities. This initiative might also require a high public and private investment for implementation. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Building Departments, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases land use • Decreases inventory costs Disadvantages: • May require high investments • May increase traffic in the surrounding areas • Might reduce usable space due to long ramps Examples: • Three-story warehouse, Seattle, WA. The first multistory logistics warehouse in the United States is a 590,000 square- foot facility that rents space to large shipping companies, including Amazon and Home Depot (The Wall Street Journal 2019). • Beijing Capital Airport Logistics Center I, Beijing, China. China’s first multistory logistics center is near Beijing Capi- tal International Airport. This center now consists of two distribution centers with immediate access to the airport, highway, and city of Beijing (Prologis 2019). • Beaugrenelle logistics hotel, Paris, France. This 30,000-m2 two-story development in south Paris has a daily ca- pacity of 6,500 parcels. It was previously a parking lot in a dense urban area. It also allows transfers to cleaner modes (e.g., electric vans, which reduced noise by 8% in 2016) (IFSTTAR 2018). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core, Multimodal Logistics Developments; Urban Consolidation Centers; Urban Distribution Centers; Site and Building Design; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Complementary transportation initiatives: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Freight Demand Man- agement; Parking and Loading Areas Management References: IFSTTAR (2018); Prologis (2019); The Wall Street Journal (2019); Prologis (2020) Source: (Prologis 2020) Exhibit 57. Initiative T5: Multistory logistics developments.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 151   Urban Consolidation Centers Description: UCCs are logistics facilities that aim to reduce truck traffic within a target area by consolidating cargo. The cargo is consolidated at the facility, which is in proximity to the target area, and the last leg of the delivery is performed by a neutral carrier. This initiative requires large investments and a critical mass of receivers to be feasible and to positively impact the network. A major issue is the poor track record of UCCs because less than 10% of all trials are in operation. Geographic scope: Area, Parcel Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, LTGs Expected costs and level of effort: UCCs require land in prime locations, typically located inside or at the fringe of the urban core. The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement to reduce opposition from unions and suppliers. UCCs are most likely to be successful if they can be imposed, controlled, and complemented with supporting policies. Stakeholders involved: Trade Associations, Local Communities, Carriers, DOTs, Public Works Departments, Legis- lative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Consolidations cargo • Increases trucking efficiency • Reduces truck traffic • Reduces network externalities Disadvantages: • Has a high cost to implement and operate (may re- quire public subsidies) • May be unpopular among suppliers • Requires a minimum number of receivers to work • Increases traffic in the vicinity of the area or facility • Has a poor track record of remaining in operation without subsidies (less than 10%) Examples: • Binnenstadservice, Netherlands: In the absence of large subsidies from the public sector, UCCs can only succeed if the receivers of the supplies ask their vendors to deliver to the UCC. This is the case of Binnenstadservice, which managed to secure receivers' commitments in 15 cities in the Netherlands and reduced the CO2 and pollu- tants produced by about 40% (BESTFACT 2013). • Tokyo Sky Tree Town (Soramachi), Japan: A private transport company operates three UCCs, where it reduces 48% of the vehicles by using consolidation. In this case, there are no subsidies for operating the UCC; however, its success can be attributed to the building owner who mandates its use (Taniguchi et al. 2018). Related land-use initiatives: Site and Building Design; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Foster Public-Private Collaboration Complementary transportation initiatives: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Create a Freight Ad- visory Committee; Create a Freight Quality Partnership References: BESTFACT (2013); Taniguchi et al. (2018) Exhibit 58. Initiative T6: Urban consolidation centers.

152 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Urban Distribution Centers Description: Urban distribution centers for last-mile deliveries are located in or nearby dense areas in central locations. They can be located either off-street (e.g., within buildings or garages, or on sidewalks) or on-street (e.g., by the curbside) using container hubs or underutilized parking areas. Some retailers set up urban distribution centers inside their stores to allow faster delivery and pickup options to customers, reducing the VMT from far away warehouses. The last-mile delivery can be done using cargo bikes or on foot in some cases. This initiative reduces systematic inef- ficiencies, logistics sprawl, and livability issues. Geographic scope: Area, Parcel Initiative group: Facilities and Infrastructure Management: Major Improvements Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries Expected costs and level of effort: Investments and expenses are usually related to the floor area and the logistics management. Overall, it is expected that savings will be significant since the number of trips and the time in last-mile deliveries will be reduced. The biggest difficulty is finding suitable space in dense urban centers where space is limited, and land values are high. The implementation term will depend on the time required to find suitable locations. Stakeholders involved: Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Regional Planning Agencies Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Provides faster deliveries • Reduces noise and emissions Disadvantages: • Can be difficult to find space in dense urban areas • Can lead to reduction of retail store space that is used for direct sales • Increases conflict between freight and non-freight traffic Examples: • EcoHubs, Hamburg, Germany. UPS is using EcoHubs in central locations in the city to perform last-mile deliveries. They are supplied once a day, and packages are then delivered on foot or by cargo bikes. This has removed 7 to 10 delivery vans from central Hamburg. EcoHubs has also been implemented in Munich, Germany; and Dublin, Ireland. (Eltis 2018; The Shorty Awards 2019). • Green Hub, Paris, France. The Green Link company has three logistics hubs within Paris that are supplied outside of rush hours by truck or boat. The de- liveries are then are done by bikes. The company works as a subcontractor for major companies like DHL and TNT (Heitz 2015; Darchambeau 2019). • Target, United States. Target has been remodeling many of their stores to use some as mini-distribution centers to provide faster and cheaper deliveries to consumers from store locations. Working to compete with other major companies like Amazon, Target reported 40% cost reductions due to this remodeling (Supply Chain Dive 2019a; 2019c). Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Site and Building Design; Densify Logistics Activities toward the Urban Core; Foster Logistics Mixed Use; Urban Consolidation Centers Complementary transportation initiatives: Mode Shift Programs; Vehicle-Related Strategies; Freight Demand Management; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs; Pickups and Deliveries to Alternate Locations References: Heitz (2015); Eltis (2018); Darchambeau (2019); Register of Initiatives in Pedal Powered Logistics (2019); Supply Chain Dive (2019a, 2019c); The Shorty Awards (2019) Source: (Eltis 2018; The Shorty Awards 2019) Exhibit 59. Initiative T7: Urban distribution centers.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 153   Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes Description: This initiative involves improvements to infrastructure designed to accommodate trucks’ technical acceleration and deceleration specifications, especially when merging into traffic at intersections, interchanges, ramps, highways, and at traffic signals. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Minor Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastruc- ture Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve multiple stakeholders to account for the impacts and benefits of acceleration and deceleration lanes. Depending on the locations, high investments may be needed to acquire land to construct the lanes. It requires analysis of possible environmental impacts. Advantages: • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Reduces congestion • Has low probability for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • May require high capital investments • May have environmental impacts associated with new construction • May require moderate implementation time Examples: • Minnesota DOT (Maze et al. 2005) • Acceleration Lane at I-81/I-70 Interchange. Maryland (Keels 2011) Deceleration lanes at the intersection of four-lane and two-lane Highway. Source: (Maze et al. 2005) Related alternatives: Truck Routes; Restricted Multiuse Lanes; Exclusive Truck Lanes References: Douglas (2003); Maze et al. (2005); Keels (2011) Exhibit 60. Initiative T8: Acceleration and deceleration lanes.

154 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Removal of Geometric Constraints at Intersections Description: This initiative involves improvements to the geometric design at intersections to better accommo- date trucks in areas with high truck traffic and in truck routes. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Point Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Minor Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastruc- ture and enhance safety Expected costs and level of effort to implement: A cautious cost-benefit analysis is required. Cost to update design standards at intersections is minimal. Implementation costs vary but are often high. Advantages: • Enhances safety • Reduces congestion • Reduces infrastructure damage • Has low to no probability for unintended conse- quences Disadvantages: • Could require high capital investments • May require moderate implementation time • May conflict with pedestrian traffic • May impact private-sector locations Examples: • AASHTO standards (AASHTO 2001) • Swept Path: Amount of roadway space that truck needs to make a turn without hitting something (U.S. Department of Transportation 2000). Swept Path Source: (U.S. Department of Transportation 2000) Related alternatives: Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Vehicle Size and Weight Restriction; Truck Routes References: Fambro et al. (1988); Hummer et al. (1988); Ogden (1992); Mason Jr. et al. (1993); Harkey et al. (1996); Harwood et al. (1999); AASHTO (2001); Fitzpatrick and Wooldridge (2001); Garber et al. (2008) Swept Path Width Exhibit 61. Initiative T9: Removal of geometric constraints at intersections.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 155   Ramps for Handcarts and Forklifts Description: This initiative involves additions to urban buildings and sidewalk ramps to accommodate forklifts or small handcarts to improve the efficiency of loading and unloading truck activities. Targeted mode: Urban deliveries Geographic scope: Point Type of initiative: Infrastructure Management: Minor Improvements Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastruc- ture Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Effort is required to coordinate multiple stakeholders in- volved from planning and transportation organizations, real estate developers, and landlords to update and modify current regulations, land-use codes, and rezoning strategies. Implementation costs may involve the need to buy or rent additional space, or include costs to retrofit existing buildings, although these costs are generally low, and implementation times are short. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Has low to no probability for unintended conse- quences Disadvantages: • May conflict with pedestrian traffic Examples: • For freight, a similar curb ramp improvement type of project, such as the projects conducted after the pass- ing of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Source: (U.S. Department of Justice 2010) Related alternatives: Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Enhanced Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks References: Ogden (1977) Exhibit 62. Initiative T10: Ramps for handcarts and forklifts.

156 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 9.2 Parking and Loading Areas Management City centers and business districts have limited parking availability, and freight vehicles making deliveries to these areas have to spend considerable time looking and waiting for a parking space, often resorting to double-parking (Jaller et al. 2013a). Moreover, the lack of spaces to unload cargo results in trucks docking in undersized loading areas and extending into sidewalks and roadways. Frequently, the parking spaces available are not enough to satisfy the needs of delivery trucks. In Manhattan, for example, there are scores of zip codes where the demand for parking from delivery trucks exceeds the linear capacity of the streets to accommodate them (Jaller et al. 2013a). Furthermore, because the parking spaces are also available to other com- mercial vehicles, such as limos and service vehicles, the amount of parking available to freight vehicles is further reduced. It is important to manage parking and loading areas effectively. Parking and loading issues can be mitigated by tapping into the power of land-use initia- tives such as enhancing building codes and others, which are described in Chapter 7. However, the impacts of lack of parking and loading areas can be alleviated by optimizing existing capacity, as described in this section. 9.2.1 On-Street Parking and Loading Areas Older developments, particularly old inner-city areas, are not designed to handle large freight traffic volumes and the on-street parking it generates. Appropriate curb allocation is essential to reducing congestion and improving environmental conditions (Nourinejad et al. 2013). The main challenge is that the demand for curb space exceeds capacity because cars, buses, and freight vehicles all need access to the curb. From a strictly economic point of view, however, freight vehicles and buses should have first priority for curb space. Freight vehicles need to park close to their customers, because the cost of walking freight from trucks to customers is very high; parking further away reduces the size of the loads drivers carry, all of which increases delivery and parking times. Moreover, freight vehicles produce more congestion than smaller pas- senger cars do, so it makes sense to get them off the roads. Some U.S. cities are starting to adopt initiatives that provide freight-efficient guidelines for the use of the curb. The Curbside Management Guide includes initiatives for mixed-use environments, such as delivery vehicle staging zones, wider bikeways that support deliveries by bike, and pre-reserved loading zones (Institute of Transportation Engineers 2017; National Association of City Transportation Officials 2017). Similarly, fostering transit use requires that bus stops be strategically placed in high-demand locations, and that single-occupant vehicle use be discouraged by making it less convenient. The initiatives presented in this subsection deal with on-street parking and loading in a variety of ways. Initiative T11: Freight Parking and Loading Zones These programs focus on allocating curb space for parking and loading activities. Increasing the capacity of parking and loading areas is a low-cost way to reduce congestion and improve traffic. This was the chief finding of Nourinejad et al. in a traffic simulation study that assessed the impacts of alternative freight parking strategies (2013). The NYC Department of Transportation (NYC DOT) increased the parking allocation for commercial vehicles and installed parking meters (New York City Department of Transportation 2012b; The City of New York 2012). The freight industry has reacted positively to the new policy. In Washington, DC, a curbside freight study recommended providing longer parking and loading spaces, multi-space meters, and pricing of loading zones (Jones et al. 2009). Other recommendations are to increase the size of loading zones to 100 feet where possible, and to move them to the end of the block. Some studies and case

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 157   studies in U.S. cities also propose other uses of curb spaces to promote freight deliveries. These include designing wider bikeways that support package and food deliveries by bike; creating pre-reserved loading zones that allow carriers to “park and walk” instead of driving to the door; and exploring off-peak freight deliveries for busy mixed-use environments (Institute of Trans- portation Engineers 2017; National Association of City Transportation Officials 2017). Exhibit 63 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T11. Initiative T12: Loading and Parking Restrictions Parking and loading restrictions of various forms have been implemented in metropolitan areas in the United States and Europe. The city of San Francisco has a multi-layer parking policy with “commercial yellow zones,” restrictions at “passenger white zones,” and commercial parking restrictions in residential zones. Specific truck-only loading zones are restricted to special freight vehicles. Other restrictions include time-of-day restrictions for parking, accommodating delivery trucks in “shared” or “flex” spaces, and creating and managing on-street loading bays (San Francisco County Transportation Authority 2009). NYC added loading bays and implemented a graduated rate structure: $2 for 1 hour, $5 for 2 hours, and $9 for 3 hours of parking (New York City Department of Transportation 2012b). Other initiatives that manage curb space by allocating specific time slots for delivery operations have been successfully implemented, such as the NYC DOT Delivery Windows program (New York City Department of Transportation 2009). Exhibit 64 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T12. Initiative T13: Peak-Hour Clearways Peak-hour clearways are streets with prohibitions for curbside parking or stopping during peak hours. Clearways facilitate the movement of all vehicles by increasing the capacity of the road, although they also affect the ability of carriers to service premises along the clearway, and can be inconvenient to businesses and residents wanting to access those busi- nesses during peak hours (Ogden 1992). Exhibit 65 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T13. Initiative T14: Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems Vehicle parking reservation systems make it possible for drivers to reserve curbside parking space. The program requires stakeholder coordination as well as strict enforcement. ITS usually are needed to help with the allocation and use of parking spots. In Toyota City, Japan, a pilot test allowed truckers to reserve parking spaces using cell phones. The parking area was remotely monitored using cameras. The pilot was deemed a success because it led to a 56% reduction of parked vehicles on the street for loading and unloading (PIARC 2012). However, no informa- tion is available about any research that investigated the potential for unintended consequences of this program, such as increased congestion due to other vehicles without access to the system circling around searching for a parking spot. Exhibit 66 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T14. 9.2.2 Off-Street Parking and Loading Areas These initiatives pursue two different objectives: (1) to bring to bear all possible ways to complement on-street parking and (2) to ensure that the real estate sector provides enough parking and loading areas to accommodate all the freight traffic generated by their tenants. The first objective pertains to older urban areas with buildings designed before the automobile era when there was minimal or no need for parking and loading areas. The second objective per- tains to ensuring that building owners provide the areas needed for parking and loading while minimizing the externalities produced by their buildings’ traffic. In the e-commerce era, with

158 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools its surge of internet deliveries to households, apartment buildings, which typically were not required to provide loading docks, have become major generators of internet deliveries. Initiative T15: Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks (Joint) Shopping malls and large stores in central business districts have limited space for maneu- vering, and often have insufficient or outdated loading docks. This initiative suggests redesigning docks to accommodate the geometric needs of current and future trucks. It also recommends adequate setbacks from roadways so that trucks do not extend into roadways when docking (Rhodes et al. 2012). Access to, and egress from, these areas is also important, as distance away from intersections facilitates traffic maneuvers and minimizes traffic impacts. Truck access should be separate from car and pedestrian access for operational, aesthetic, and security reasons (Ogden 1992). Exhibit 67 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T15. Initiative T16: Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking Outside Metropolitan Areas (Joint) There are different types of truck parking, including overnight long-haul parking, which allows drivers to rest on longer trips as mandated by law. These areas are usually outside or on the edges of urban areas. Another type of parking is prepositioning and overnight stops for drivers near their drop-off points, where the drivers rest and deliver the goods at the time agreed to with their customers. In addition, drivers who own single trucks might store them on public streets. This initiative involves the construction or installation of truck stops to accommodate these parking types. Truck stops could be used by freight vehicles as staging areas to conduct transshipment activities. They could also serve as rest areas for long-haul drivers, overnight parking areas, temporary parking locations during peak times, or waiting areas until designated delivery times. These facilities are designed and provided so that drivers can take mandatory or optional breaks to rest. Since the costs of constructing truck stops could be high, public and private partnership can share the planning and constructing of new truck stops. The private sector would benefit from opportunities to invest in service facilities in the surrounding areas. This can improve land values in the surrounding area, where the success of these facilities depends on their location, capacity, and other characteristics, such as the availability of food, commu- nication services, and other service facilities (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2009). Exhibit 68 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T16. Initiative T17: Staging Areas (Joint) A lack of parking, curb space, and loading facilities at establishments receiving freight may require governmental agencies or planning organizations to mandate the use of staging areas. Such requirements should foster the development or implementation of on-site and off-street areas at businesses or facilities that regularly receive freight. However, there are locations where this may not be a feasible option; thus, the establishment of common loading areas for sites that are LTGs or for other multi-tenant facilities may be a viable option (Federal Highway Administration 2012c). Alternatively, municipalities might foster the development of nearby delivery or staging areas that could serve as urban transshipment platforms. These areas could be implemented at public or private parking lots, empty lots, or other spaces that could accommodate a number of freight vehicles conducting loading and unloading activities. At these staging areas, cargo could be unloaded from the freight vehicles and loaded to trolleys, carts, or other vehicles for last-mile distribution. In Bordeaux, France, nearby delivery areas have been established together with additional services, such as dedicated personnel to assist in the dispatching of shipments. These areas can accommodate between three to five freight vehicles (about 30 meters wide) (BESTUFS 2007). The challenge involved in establishing these areas is securing the necessary space. The staging area design also needs to take into consideration

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 159   possible conflicts with nearby residents. Exhibit 69 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T17. Initiative T18: Timeshare of Parking Space By recommending that off-street parking structures schedule shared use of parking spaces among various users, this initiative complements on-street parking policies. Scheduling use of parking spaces during certain times of the day allows the spaces to be shared among trucks and commercial and private vehicles (PIARC 2011). Exhibit 70 summarizes essential charac- teristics of Initiative T18.

160 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Freight Parking and Loading Zones Description: Adapt existing street design and loading areas to accommodate current and future traffic and truck volumes. Parking places and loading zone-related strategies focus on designating and enforcing curbside parking, reallocating curb space, revising signage, and identifying potential freight traffic parking locations. Targeted mode: LTGs, urban deliveries, all traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Parking and Loading Areas Man- agement: On-Street Parking and Loading Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort to implement: This initiative requires effort to coordinate multiple stakehold- ers from planning and transportation organizations to update and modify current regulations, land-use codes, and rezoning strategies. Careful planning is needed when allocating curb space or implementing fees or other parking constraints. Positive and negative impacts to road users should also be considered. Investment costs for updating parking regulations are low, and implementation times are short. Constructing new parking facilities or expanding existing truck parking facilities may require high capital investments. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Enhances safety • Reduces traffic and parking violations • Improves mobility • Improves operational efficiency • Enhances environmental sustainability • Has low probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • May require retrofitting existing developments • May result in lack of curbside space • Requires public- and private-sector acceptance • May not be feasible at specific locations Examples: • Freight Parking Zone, Orlando, FL (City of Orlando 2013) • Freight Zone Parking Enforcement in Salt Lake City, UT • Curbside Management Guide for a better use of the curb (e.g., delivery vehicle stag- ing zones, wider bikeways that support deliveries by bike, pre-reserved loading zones) for busy mixed-use environments (Institute of Transportation Engineers 2017; National Association of City Transportation Officials 2017). Source: (Salt Lake City 2013) Related alternatives: New and Upgraded Infrastructure, Intermodal Terminals; Removal of Geometric Con- straints at Intersections; Ramps for Handcrafts and Forklifts; Peak-Hour Clearways; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks; Parking Pricing References: Rizzo Associates (2001); BESTUFS (2007); Cambridge Systematics, Inc. (2007); Jones et al. (2009); New York City Department of City Planning (2011); Jaller et al. (2013a); New York City Department of Transportation (2012b); The City of New York (2012) Exhibit 63. Initiative T11: Freight parking and loading zones.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 161   Loading and Parking Restrictions Description: Implement parking and loading and unloading restrictions, prohibited parking on residential streets, and other time-related parking restrictions. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Point Type of initiative: Parking and Loading Areas Man- agement: On-Street Parking and Loading Objectives: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Multiple stakeholders may need to be involved to update current regulations, land-use codes, and rezoning strategies. Careful planning and a thorough evaluation of posi- tive and negative impacts to road users, commercial companies, and residents are required. Investment costs are relatively low, and restrictions can be implemented in a short time. Time restrictions may require funds to provide incentives to receiver companies to switch operations to alternate hours. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances safety • Enhances livability • Improves mobility • Improves operational efficiency • Enhances environmental sustainability Disadvantages: • Requires enforcement • Requires public- and private-sector acceptance • Has a high probability of unintended conse- quences - May create confusion among drivers - May impact logistics operations • May require additional incentives to receiver companies Examples: • NYC, NY (City of New York 2012) • San Francisco, CA (San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency 2013) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related alternatives: Timesharing of Parking Space; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks; Parking Pricing; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs References: BESTUFS (2007); Cambridge Systematics, Inc. (2007); Jones et al. (2009); New York City Department of Transportation (2009); San Francisco County Transportation Authority (2009); New York City Department of Transportation (2012b); The City of New York (2012); San Francisco Municipal Transportation Agency (2013) Exhibit 64. Initiative T12: Loading and parking restrictions.

162 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Peak-Hour Clearways Description: Peak-hour clearways are roadway corridors defined by clearway signs at each end, where parking and standing of vehicles is prohibited during peak hours. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Parking and Loading Areas Man- agement: On-Street Parking and Loading Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Peak-hour clearway restrictions require careful consideration of freight movements and land use in the target area. Implementation and enforcement by local authorities is required. Changing policy and adding appropriate signage will bring minor costs; enforcement of parking during peak hours will be additional costs. This type of initiative could be implemented in a short period of time. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility during peak hours Disadvantages: • May face private-sector opposition • Has moderate probability for unintended conse- quences • Reduces residential parking • Reduces access to businesses during peak hours • May create confusion among drivers Examples: • Perth, Australia (Government of Western Australia 2013) • Red Route Network, London, England (SUGAR 2011) • New Zealand (New Zealand Transport Agency 2007) Source: (Government of Western Australia 2013) Source: (New Zealand Transport Agency 2007) Related alternatives: Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Timesharing of Parking Space; Staggered Work- Hour Programs References: Ogden (1992); SUGAR (2011) Exhibit 65. Initiative T13: Peak-hour clearways.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 163   Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems Description: This initiative allows drivers to schedule or reserve curbside parking space. Targeted mode: LTGs Geographic scope: Point Type of initiative: Parking and Loading Areas Manage- ment: On-Street Parking and Loading Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastruc- ture Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process requires administrative and management coordination with freight carriers, shippers, and receivers; the implementation requires strict law enforcement. Moderate costs are associated with the ITS, webcam monitoring, and enforcement. Changing policy and adding appropriate signage will be minor costs; enforcement of parking during peak hours will add costs. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces VMT • Enhances safety • Has low probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires enforcement • Requires private-sector acceptance • May require additional parking space due to high demand Examples: • I-5 Corridor, California (Shaheen 2013) • Toyota City, Japan • Bordeaux, France Source: (PIARC 2012) Related alternatives: Timesharing of Parking Space; Staging Areas; Parking Pricing; Real-Time Information Systems References: PIARC (2012); Shaheen (2013) Exhibit 66. Initiative T14: Vehicle parking reservation systems.

164 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Description: This is a redesign of existing parking areas and loading docks to accommodate the geometric needs of current and future freight vehicles. It may also involve redesigning the access to parking areas and docks. This initiative should provide adequate infrastructure for parking vehicles, which will reduce the time required to perform deliveries or pickups because drivers would spend less time looking for parking. It will also reduce externalities on the network, such as double-parking, which will improve livability in cities. The upgraded parking areas can also be used as staging areas for trucks, reducing the number of vehicles in the streets. Geographic scope: Street, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Parking and Loading Areas Management: Off-Street Parking and Loading Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, LTGs, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk conflicts Expected costs and level of effort: For public agencies, changing the parking areas and docks design standards for new buildings and retrofits is not costly. However, some types of facilities, such as historical buildings, may not allow retrofitting. In these cases, the public sector must provide alternative solutions to improve logistics parking facilities near the area, which could be expensive. In the case for private firms, upgrading parking areas and loading docks could be expensive because building owners might oppose the initiative due to the costs of retrofitting their facilities. Educa- tional efforts to show the benefits of the initiative to the entire community might be necessary to get the private sector to agree. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Developers, DOTs. Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Improves inadequate infrastructure to accommodate geometric needs • Has low probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires private-sector acceptance • May require high capital investment • May require additional space Examples: • NYC, NY; Boston, MA; and San Francisco, CA. These cities have made significant efforts to upgrade their parking areas and loading docks (Rhodes et al. 2012). • Chicago, IL. UIRC has made significant efforts to improve their fa- cilities by upgrading the loading docks (Holguín-Veras et al. 2015). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Redevelop Underutilized Facilities; En- hance Building Codes and Design Guidelines to Support FELU; Require Provision of Buffers; Require Provision for Logistics Area; Require Provision of Off-Street Loading and Parking Areas; Provide Performance-Based Incentives Complementary transportation initiatives: Ramps for Handcarts and Forklifts; Timeshare of Parking Space; Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Freight Demand Management References: Rhodes et al. (2012); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute) Exhibit 67. Initiative T15: Upgrade off-street parking areas and loading docks.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 165   Truck Stops and Long-Term Parking outside Metropolitan Areas Description: There are different types of truck parking, including overnight long-haul parking, which allows drivers to rest on longer trips (usually outside or on the edges of urban areas), and prepositioning and overnight stops for drivers near their drop-off and pickup points. This initiative involves the rehabilitation, construction, or installation of truck stops and parking that could be used to accommodate this type of parking. Truck stops can serve as staging areas to conduct transshipment activities, rest areas for long-haul drivers, overnight parking areas, temporary parking locations during peak times, or waiting areas until designated delivery times. Providing truck parking helps reduce illegal parking and livability issues due to freight traffic. Geographic scope: City/MSA Initiative group: Parking and Loading Areas Management: Off-Street Parking and Loading Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Large trucks, LTGs, Other parking issues Expected costs and level of effort: The planning process requires administrative and management coordination with freight carriers to select the most appropriate locations. Securing the area to establish the stops and parking areas will be costly. Changing policy and adding appropriate signage will carry minor costs; providing security and other services will add costs. Public and private partnership can share the costs of construction of truck stops to reduce large costs. It can also provide the private sector with opportunities to invest in service facilities in the surrounding areas (e.g., hotels.) This can improve land values in the surrounding area. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Carriers, Producers, Receivers, Developers Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Improves inadequate infrastructure • Reduces curbside occupation time • Improves mobility Disadvantages: • Requires significant capital for building the facility and its maintenance • May increase the congestion and noise nearby the fa- cility Examples: • NYC, NY (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2009) New York Thruway (I-87) Madena Service Area Source: (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2009) Related land-use initiatives: Develop a FELU Plan; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks; Multi- modal Logistics Developments; Freight Cluster Development Complementary transportation initiatives: Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Driver Training Programs; Anti- idling Programs; Real-Time Information Systems References: New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (2009) Exhibit 68. Initiative T16: Truck stops and long-term parking outside metropolitan areas.

166 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Staging Areas Description: This initiative fosters the development or requirement of on-site off-street areas at businesses or other facilities to conduct loading, unloading, or other freight-related activities. Improving staging areas reduces systematic inefficiencies, livability issues due to freight facilities, pollution, and noise, and enhances safety. Geographic scope: Street, Parcel, Building Initiative group: Parking and Loading Areas Management: Off-Street Parking and Loading Problem source: Inadequate infrastructure, Urban deliveries, LTGs, Double-parking, Other parking issues, Sidewalk issues Expected costs and level of effort: Changing design standards, and building and zoning codes will not be costly. However, retroactively updating existing loading areas or constructing larger areas for freight activities at establish- ments or facilities will be expensive. Securing the space to establish public staging areas and operating them will be costly. Stakeholders involved: Receivers, Developers, DOTs Time to fruition: Less than a year Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Improves inadequate infrastructure Disadvantages: • Requires private-sector acceptance • May require high capital investment • Requires additional space • May generate resistance from nearby residents Examples: • Bordeaux and Rouen, France. These cities have imple- mented a few staging areas for the loading and unloading of trucks. The areas are equipped by dedicated personnel that help with dispatching goods for the last mile (Eltis 2003; BESTUFS 2007) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related land-use initiatives: Site and Building Design; Upgrade Off-Street Parking Areas and Loading Docks Complementary transportation initiatives: Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Time-Slotting of Pickups and De- liveries at LTGs References: Eltis (2003); NICHES (2006); BESTUFS (2007); Federal Highway Administration (2012c) Exhibit 69. Initiative T17: Staging areas.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 167   Timeshare of Parking Space Description: Schedule the use of parking spaces among and between specific carriers. This initiative includes coordinating the timing of pickups and deliveries with freight carriers, shippers, or receivers, and, in some cases, freight and passenger vehicles. Timesharing of parking spaces requires the optimization of times for deliveries and other uses. Targeted mode: LTGs, urban deliveries Geographic scope: Point Type of initiative: Parking and Loading Areas Man- agement: Off-Street Parking and Loading Primary objective: Improve inadequate infrastructure Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement and coordination with local officials, shippers and receivers of goods, the road freight industry, and other users of parking space. Changing policy and adding appropriate signage will be a minor cost; enforcement (including cameras) and reservation measures could be costly. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Improves mobility • Has low probability for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires private-sector acceptance • Requires enforcement • Requires coordination with other parties Examples: • Sendai, Japan (PIARC 2011) Related alternatives: Loading and Parking Restrictions; Peak-Hour Clearways; Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs References: PIARC (2011) Exhibit 70. Initiative T18: Timeshare of parking space.

168 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 9.3 Vehicle-Related Strategies These initiatives seek to improve environmental conditions by fostering the use of tech- nologies and practices that reduce the negative externalities produced by vehicles. The challenge of this type of strategy mainly relates to enforcement. In areas where these strategies are imple- mented, information regarding the process and level of enforcement is very limited. 9.3.1 Technologies and Programs Initiative T19: Emission Standards Emission standards have fostered the use of vehicles that produce fewer environmental impacts. Although they improve environmental conditions, emission standards have resulted in the need for changes in vehicle fleets, thereby increasing investment, maintenance, and operating costs. Evidence exists that actual increases in operational costs are often higher than those noted in these analyses (ICF International et al. 2011). Various programs exist to accelerate the use of cleaner vehicles before the introduction of emission standards, or to seek to voluntarily increase the uptake of these vehicles. The Hunts Point Clean Trucks Program is a voluntary clean truck program that provides rebate incentives to truck owners based in the South Bronx communities of Hunts Point and Port Morris, New York (New York City Department of Trans- portation 2012a). Truck owners can take advantage of available funding to assist them in replacing an older truck with a new EPA emission-compliant diesel truck or a new alternative- fuel vehicle. Funding is also available for the installation of exhaust retrofit technologies or vehicle scrap. Similar schemes include the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach Clean Trucks programs (Port of Los Angeles 2007), which have worked closely with the Coalition for Responsible Transportation to develop an initiative for truck replacement with sponsorship of the private sector [Coalition for Responsible Transportation (CRT) and Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) 2010]. Exhibit 71 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T19. Initiative T20: Low-Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations These programs and regulations specifically target noise pollution with regulations and low-noise delivery initiatives. In the United States, the EPA provides basic guidelines, although noise policy is left to local agencies [e.g., NYC’s Local Law 113 (City of New York 2005)]. Other noise programs intend to facilitate OHD by fostering adoption of low-noise technologies and practices (Holguín-Veras et al. 2013a). In the Netherlands, for example, the PIEK Program subsidizes the acquisition of technologies that meet the new Dutch noise standards (Goevaers 2011). Exhibit 72 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T20.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 169   Emission Standards Description: Enforce emission standards for freight vehicles, which may involve the use of electric or low emission vehicles for urban deliveries. A number of vehicle renewal programs support this type of initiative. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Nation Type of initiative: Vehicle-Related Strategies: Stand- ards and Programs Primary objective: Environmental sustainability Expected costs and level of effort to implement: This type of initiative involves minor costs to update policies and standards on emissions, but the public-sector cost of enforcement could be high. High private-sector capital investments in fleet renewal could be involved. The implementation of emission standards is expected to take a moderate amount of time. Advantages: • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances livability • Enhances efficiency • Reduces operational costs • Has low probability for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires high capital investments for the private sector • May require coordination, control, and enforce- ment among municipalities • Depends on other public entities’ standards • May require investments in additional infrastruc- ture to support new technologies (e.g., charging stations, alternative-fuel supply) • Requires private-sector cooperation Examples: • U.S. EPA Emission Standards • California Air Resources Board’s Transport Refrigeration Unit Airborne Toxic Control Measure (California Environmental Protection Agency 2012) • Euro VI standards (European Commission 2012) Renewal Programs: • U.S. EPA SmartWay program • Plug In America (Plug In America 2013) • The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department Program and Pilot Green Transport Fund (Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department 2011) • PIEK Program, Netherlands (Goevaers 2011) Related alternatives: Low Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations; Engine-Related Restrictions; Low Emis- sion Zones; Operational Incentives for Electric and Low Emission Vehicles; Taxation References: City Ports (2005); BESTUFS (2007); TURBLOG (2009); C-LIEGE (2010); Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (2011); ICF International et al. (2011); California Environmental Protection Agency (2012); Environmental Protection Agency (2012); European Commission (2012); Plug In America (2013); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Source: (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013) Exhibit 71. Initiative T19: Emission standards.

170 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Low-Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations Description: This initiative involves regulations and low-noise delivery initiatives to lessen noise pollution. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: City Type of initiative: Vehicle-Related Strategies: Stand- ards and Programs Objectives: Promote environmental sustainability and reduce noise and pollution Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement to analyze the private- and public-sector impacts. For the private sector, implementation may require high capital investment costs, such as fleet renewal. Costs to update policy and standards to incorporate these regulations will be fairly low. For the public sector, costs of providing the necessary incentives and enforcement programs could be high. The implementation of this type of initiative may require a moderate amount of time. Advantages: • Enhances livability • Enhances environmental sustainability - Reduces noise pollution - Reduces emissions • Facilitates OHDs • Has low probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • May require high investments to support the programs Examples: • NYC, NY (City of New York 2005) • London, England (London Noise Abatement Society 2008) • PIEK Program, Netherlands (Goevaers 2011) Source: (Noise Abatement Society 2011) Related alternatives: Emission Standards; Engine-Related Restrictions; Certification Programs; Driver Train- ing Programs; Voluntary Off-Hour Delivery Programs References: The City of New York (2005); World Health Organization (2006); BESTUFS (2007); C-LIEGE (2010); Wieman (2010); Environmental Protection Agency (2011); Goevaers (2011); Holguín-Veras et al. (2013a) Exhibit 72. Initiative T20: Low-noise delivery programs and regulations.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 171   9.4 Traffic Management Traffic management strategies aim to improve traffic conditions using techniques from traffic engineering and control, including access restrictions, lane management, and traffic control. Initiative T21: Enhanced Traffic Impact Analysis The traditional TIA identifies and quantifies the impact of the traffic generated by new devel- opment on the surrounding road network, and determines mitigation measures to minimize the impacts on local communities and traffic, such as redesign of the impacted intersections, installation of traffic-actuated signals, and other traffic and highway engineering measures. In most cases, TIAs are required by local or state law in cases where the traffic generated exceeds a threshold defined in the applicable legislation. Yet, freight vehicles can sometimes have a larger effect on surrounding neighborhoods due to their larger size and the externalities they generate. Some jurisdictions, such as Marion County, Oregon; and Seal Beach, California, have started to include considerations of freight traffic in their TIA requirements. Enhanced TIAs seek to broaden the scope of the tools used to mitigate the impacts of the freight traffic generated by the development, by means of complementing traffic and highway engineering measures with the transportation initiatives discussed in this chapter. For instance, a TIA could require the adoption of measures to manage the freight and service trips arriving at the development by means of staggering the arrival those trips, fostering the use of off-hour deliveries, and reducing the number of deliveries received by coordination among tenants, among others. The intent is that enhanced TIAs, whenever appropriate, consider requiring that new developments implement some of the initiatives discussed in this chapter to mitigate freight externalities. Enhanced TIAs, in combination with the conditional use requirements discussed in Chapter 7, could have a transformative effect on FELUs. Exhibit 73 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T21. 9.4.1 Access and Vehicle-Related Restriction These measures use restriction(s) to limit, grant, or deny access of freight vehicles to the target area. The nature of the restrictions varies by vehicle type (e.g., size, weight, load factor, com- modity type, or engine type), and time of travel. These restrictions are not well received by most carriers because they result in operational changes and higher costs. For example, the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach (California) have implemented a clean truck program by which trucks that do not meet certain engine configuration requirements pay a $35/TEU (twenty-foot equivalent unit) fee for accessing their container ports. The program was in force until the end of 2013. In 2018, as part of the program, only trucks from the year 2014 or newer were allowed to transit in the ports (Port of Los Angeles 2012; 2013a). Initiative T22: Vehicle Size and Weight Restrictions Vehicle size and weight restrictions limit access on the basis of vehicle size, and are often implemented because of concerns about the perceived congestion or traffic accidents produced by large trucks. These restrictions have been recommended as a way to reduce congestion (Vleugel and Janic 2004), although noting that carriers could experience increases of about 5% in operating costs (Allen et al. 2003). Given that carriers’ profit margins are typically less than 5%, it is not surprising that most carriers oppose these restrictions. However, a growing body of research suggests that, although the look of the target area is enhanced due to the restrictions, an increase in pollution and a drop in quality of life also can result (Maze et al. 2005; Rhodes et al. 2012). Using transportation models, the research has proved that vehicle size restrictions increase congestion outside the target area, an effect that could be larger than the

172 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools congestion reduction within the target area (Qureshi et al. 2012; Holguín-Veras et al. 2013b). The chief conclusion about vehicle size choice is that the private goal of carriers is aligned with the social goals of reducing congestion and pollution (Holguín-Veras et al. 2013b). However, access restrictions motivated by the need to protect pavements and structures not capable of handling large trucks are justified, because these are externalities not accounted for by the carriers. Vehicle size and weight restrictions should be enacted if, and only if, a careful evalua- tion of their impacts reveals benefits larger than the costs. Exhibit 74 summarizes essential char- acteristics of Initiative T22. Initiative T23: Truck Routes Truck routes specify the links of the network that can be used by freight traffic, and could be statutory or advisory (California Department of Transportation 2012). Statutory truck routes mandate that trucks use specific segments of the network. Statutory truck routes are intended to minimize conflicts between truck traffic, pedestrians, bicycles, and local communities as well as to protect pavements in local streets not ready for large trucks, and to discourage truck traffic in sensitive areas such as schools. Statutory truck routes should connect all major generators, allow for reasonable access to all points in the area, and minimize trucks’ need to use local streets. Valid reasons to use statutory truck routes include to avoid structural damage to sensitive facilities; to ensure that hazardous materials are transported far from population centers; and to transport overdimensional cargo with permits that indicate the approved routes. However, improperly designed truck routes can lead to longer delivery tours and costs. Advisory truck routes, generally welcomed by the trucking industry, inform carriers about the geometric and structural conditions of the network, allowing drivers to select the most appropriate routes. Exhibit 75 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T23. Initiative T24: Engine-Related Restrictions Engine-related restrictions require freight vehicles to meet an environmental standard to access specific facilities. These restrictions have been used in combination with eco-loading zones and low emission zones (LEZs), among other measures. In eco-loading zones in Bremen, Germany, or Green Loading Zones in New York City, city authorities allocated a number of parking spaces for the exclusive use of freight vehicles that meet stringent standards of environ- mental performance (PARFUM 2009; New York State Department of Transportation 2014). The carriers that purchase the vehicles get access to choice parking places in areas where parking would otherwise be a major challenge. This practice translates into productivity increases, because less time is wasted trying to find parking, and cost reductions because parking fines are eliminated. Exhibit 76 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T24. Initiative T25: Low Emission Zones LEZs are used in environmentally sensitive areas where vehicle access is restricted to reduce pollution levels. In some cases, all vehicular traffic is banned; in others, vehicles that meet a minimum environmental standard are allowed. LEZs are relatively popular in Europe and have started to be implemented in other parts of the world, such as Mexico City. European cities with LEZs include Berlin, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, and London. LEZs typically lead to large reductions in trips, emissions, and noise, especially when combined with incentives or other policies that encourage the shift to alternative-fuel vehicles. Most European LEZs operate 7 days a week. Exceptions include Italy, where the LEZs are active during peak traffic periods, and Budapest, Hungary, where they are enforced during daytime hours during weekdays (LEEZEN 2010). All LEZs in Europe affect large trucks (over 3.12 tonnes in gross vehicle weight), and most buses and coaches (typically, over 4.45 tonnes). Some LEZs restrict vans, cars, and motorcycles (LEEZEN 2010). Exhibit 77 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T25.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 173   Initiative T26: Load Factor Restrictions To reduce the number of freight trips, these restrictions require a minimum load factor (percent of truck capacity being used) (Quak 2008). Regrettably, these strategies have failed to live up to expectations. The low load factors observed in most cities are the result of market conditions not carrier inefficiencies. Basically, market pressures force carriers to minimize cargo consolidation because doing so leads to delays that could upset customers and result in loss of business. Also, load factors naturally decrease as trucks make deliveries. If the target area is at the end of the delivery route, it may be impossible for the carrier to meet the minimum load factor required by the city. These restrictions are also difficult to enforce because they require physical inspections, which produce significant congestion. For these reasons, the European cities that implemented these restrictions have since phased them out. Exhibit 78 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T26. 9.4.2 Time Access Restrictions Time access measures impose restriction(s) on the times when freight activity can take place. The intent is to reduce freight traffic during congested times of day in specific sec- tions of a city. The three main types of time access restrictions are daytime delivery restrictions, daytime delivery bans, and nighttime delivery bans. It is worth noting that building owners and receivers also impose delivery time restrictions that require deliveries to be made only during specific times. Relaxation of such delivery windows can reduce congestion by helping spread peak truck traffic. Initiative T27: Daytime Delivery Restrictions Daytime delivery restriction programs limit freight vehicle access to target areas during specific times. The duration of the restriction, its geographic scope, and the types of freight vehicles affected vary from case to case. These strategies tend to produce unintended network effects because they can lead to longer routes and travel times in the network, which increases congestion and pollution. Disagreement exists about the merits of daytime delivery restric- tions. The experience of seven European cities suggests that delivery time restrictions are generally well received by citizens because they reduce congestion at peak hours and increase the attractiveness of city centers. However, the restrictions are not well received by businesses in the private sector, as they make the delivery and reception of goods difficult. Some researchers suggest using time restrictions to reduce environmental impacts and accidents (BESTUFS 2007). In contrast, researchers who have quantified the impacts of the restrictions have concluded that delivery time restrictions reduce negative external effects inside the target area while increasing negative external effects in the wider area, given the longer distances driven (Van Rooijen et al. 2008). Some researchers have also found an increase in transportation costs for the participants, and increases in congestion and pollution (Quak and de Koster 2009). A care- ful assessment of spillover effects must be conducted before implementing these restrictions. Exhibit 79 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T27. Initiative T28: Daytime Delivery Bans These initiatives ban freight activity during daytime hours. Typically, the ban applies to large trucks, though it could cover other vehicle types. These bans have been implemented in a number of large cities, and are opposed by receivers, who have to absorb the additional costs of receiving supplies during nighttime hours, and who consider the ban detrimental to the local economy. In response, city agencies, such as those in Beijing, Shenzhen, and Changsha, China (Changsha Bureau of Public Security 2013; Shenzhen Bureau of Public Security 2013; Beijing Traffic Management Bureau 2014), and Rome, Italy, have enacted numerous exceptions to

174 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools make the bans more palatable to the business sector. Feedback to the ban in Beijing indicates that carriers are unhappy because (1) “the receivers required the shippers to deliver in the non-allowed time periods”; and (2) “they have to travel when they are told” (Beijing Traffic Management Bureau 2014). In most cases, the fines are paid by the carriers as part of the cost of doing business in the area. In Rome’s Limited Traffic Zone, trucks with laden weights of less than 3.12 tonnes (35 q) are only allowed to transit and park from 8:00 p.m. to 10:00 a.m., and 2:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m., while trucks with laden weights larger than 3.12 metric tons are only permitted from 8:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. As a result, congestion and pollution may worsen because small trucks are less efficient than large trucks (Holguín-Veras et al. 2013b). Daytime delivery bans could lead to congestion reductions during the daytime and productivity increases and cost savings to the carriers operating in the off hours. However, they also can lead to higher costs to receivers, which would reduce the net economic benefits. Exhibit 79 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T28. Initiative T29: Nighttime Delivery Bans Prohibitions on freight activity during nighttime hours are designed to protect local com- munities from night noise (Browne et al. 2006). However, they increase daytime congestion by forcing the 4% to 5% of deliveries that under normal conditions would take place during the off hours to be conducted during the daytime. To mitigate this problem and allow companies to do night deliveries, the PIEK Program is fostering the use of low-noise truck technologies, so that the night deliveries do not impact local communities (Goevaers 2011). Exhibit 79 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T29. 9.4.3 Traffic Control and Lane Management Traffic control and lane management strategies promote the effective use of available road capacity by trying to optimize the allocation of lane rights-of-way. By segregating trucks, which are often wider and heavier than other vehicles, mobility and safety for other road users are improved. At the same time, truck lanes reduce travel delays and improve reliability. Based on the types of users allowed in the lanes, the strategies can be grouped into restricted multiuse (shared) lanes, and exclusive truck lanes. Initiative T30: Restricted Multiuse Lanes These lanes can only be used by a restricted set of vehicle types. Lane usage can be allocated to different users using time windows: it can be shared by all users at specific time periods or assigned only to certain users all day. For example, Barcelona, Spain, has created seven multi- functional lanes in its commercial center. The implementation has been very successful, leading to an estimated reduction of 12% to 15% in overall travel time (SUGAR 2011), though it could confuse drivers (Ogden 1992). Other restricted multiuse (shared) lanes are not regulated by time and allow mixed traffic at all times. Examples are bus and truck lanes (no-car lanes), and lanes that allow buses, trucks, and high-occupancy vehicles. No-car lanes are used to segregate wider vehicles from standard-size vehicles, hence improving lane mobility and safety. Because these strategies reduce travel delays, they are used as incentives for the implementation of other strategies. The lanes must be designed properly to permit vehicles to safely interact. A key decision concerns the truck types allowed in these lanes. If all truck types are allowed, too many vehicles may use the lane, increasing congestion. On the other hand, restricting the use of the lane to only select types of trucks can be confusing to drivers, and enforcement is more chal- lenging. Another type of multiuse lane allows trucks to temporarily park in bus lanes to unload; truck travel is not allowed in the lane. An example of this type of multiuse lane is the “Lincoln” delivery bays implemented in bus lanes in Paris (BESTUFS 2007). Exhibit 80 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T30.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 175   Initiative T31: Exclusive Truck Lanes Exclusive truck lanes often afford a significant improvement in truck operations, with better reliability of delivery times and lower environmental impacts and risk of accidents. Exclusive truck lanes are often adjacent to general-purpose lanes, typically separated by barriers. Proposals for exclusive truck lanes in metropolitan areas are relatively rare; one of the few is a truck- only toll lane network in the Atlanta region (Georgia Department of Transportation 2007; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013) and the multistate I-70 Dedicated Truck Lane study that proved a business case for building dedicated truck lanes on I-70 across Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, including the Columbus, Indianapolis, and St. Louis metropolitan areas (Indiana Department of Transportation 2011). The Handbook for Planning Truck Facilities on Urban Highways provides a comprehensive report covering truck climbing lanes; truck lanes and truck-ways; truck-only ramps; interchange bypasses; and truck roadways and guide- ways (Douglas 2004). This report includes real-world experiences; lessons learned from previous implementations; typical issues planners face early in the planning process; and a framework and methods for evaluating the benefits and impacts of truck facilities. Dedicated truck lanes and corridors within cities or mega-regions should be developed with a pavement management system or a plan to counter the negative effects of heavy freight vehicle use. This could include a pavement plan to deepen and harden pavements on local roads that were not designed for their current uses. Many cities have managed pavement by limiting heavy vehicle access on roads that cannot support the traffic. Exhibit 81 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T31. Initiative T32: Traffic Control Traffic control initiatives monitor and control traffic with signs, equipment, and other devices. Signs that provide information about speed limits, access restrictions, loading zones, and other regulations have been used to assist truck drivers (BESTUFS 2007). The effectiveness of such sign- age can be enhanced with real-time traffic information and variable message signs. In Barcelona, variable message signs display real-time access regulations on multiuse lanes (SUGAR 2011). Signal coordination can also play a role, as most such systems are calibrated for passenger vehicles. In areas with heavy freight traffic, adjusting the signal timing and progression to account for the speed and reaction times of trucks could improve traffic flow (Ogden 1992). Exhibit 82 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T32.

176 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Enhanced Traffic Impact Analysis Description: Traditional TIA identifies and quantifies the impact of the traffic generated by a new de- velopment on the surrounding road network and identifies the mitigation measures needed to minimize the impacts on local communities and traffic, such as redesign of the impacted intersections, installation of traffic-actuated signals, and other traffic and highway engineering measures. Enhanced TIAs seek to broaden the scope of the tools used to mitigate traffic impacts beyond traffic and highway engineering. For instance, a TIA could require the adoption of measures to manage the freight and service trips arriving at the development by means of staggering those trips, reducing the number of deliveries re- ceived by means of coordination among tenants, among others. The intent is that enhanced TIAs, when- ever appropriate, consider requiring that new developments implement some of the initiatives discussed in this chapter to mitigate freight externalities. Enhanced TIAs, in combination with the conditional use requirements discussed in Chapter 7 could have a transformative effect on FELUs. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Area, Corridor, Parcel Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Traffic Con- trol and Lane Management Primary objective: Decrease congestion, and reduce externalities and impacts on local communities Expected costs and level of effort to implement: For public agencies: • TIAs are already routinely used. For private industry: • Developers are generally required to pay for a TIA if one is required. Advantages: • Developers are required to quantify the impacts of new development on local communities • Potential conflicts between freight traffic and other users can be identified early • Enhanced TIAs bring to bear tools beyond traffic and highway engineering, such as freight demand management, that increases their effectiveness Disadvantages: • Adds time and cost to the development process • May require additional staff members to review development proposals Examples: • Marion County, OR, requires a traffic impact study for any development where more than 5% of the expected site traffic is trucks. This study must include projected truck routes between the development and the arterial system and may be required to show impacts on the arterial system (Marion County Department of Public Works 2020). • Seal Beach, CA, requires a section on truck service impacts in submitted traffic impact studies, focusing on delivery truck circulation on- and off-site, likely truck routes to the development, and the number of loading docks the development will have (City of Seal Beach Engineering Division 2010). Related alternatives: Enhance Subdivision Regulations; Use Conditional Use Requirements to Foster FELU References: City of Seal Beach Engineering Division (2010); Marion County Department of Public Works (2020) Exhibit 73. Initiative T21: Enhanced traffic impact analysis.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 177   Vehicle Size and Weight Restrictions Description: This initiative involves restrictions to prevent vehicles of a certain weight, size (length or width), or number of axles from using a particular road or area, often the result of concerns about the perceived congestion or traffic accidents caused by large trucks. Targeted mode: Large trucks Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Access and Vehicle-Related Restrictions Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Vehicle size and weight restrictions require careful planning to consider freight movements and land use in the target area, involving extensive stakeholder engagement and coordination with other municipalities. A full analysis of possible positive and negative outcomes for the entire system, not just the target area, is recommended. Other costs include the installation of sited traffic signs, and those associated with meeting local and other municipality requirements. Advantages inside target area: • Enhances safety • Reduces congestion • Improves urban mobility • Reduces infrastructure damage • Reduces noise emissions Disadvantages inside target area: • Difficult to enforce Advantages outside target area: N/A Disadvantages outside target area: • High probability for unintended consequences: - Increased congestion - Increased operational costs - Increased environmental impacts • Weight and size regulations often conflict with those of other municipalities Typical example: • Implementation of commercial vehicle weight restrictions in California (California Department of Transportation 2012) • Vehicle size and weight restriction in New York State (New York State Department of Transportation 2013) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related alternatives: Removal of Geometric Constraints at Intersections; Truck Routes; Daytime Delivery Re- strictions; Nighttime Delivery Bans; Vertical Height Detection System; Mode Shift Programs References: Allen et al. (2000); Allen et al. (2003); Vleugel and Janic (2004); BESTUFS (2007); Dablanc (2007); Quak (2008); Holguín-Veras et al. (2011b); California Department of Transportation (2012); Qureshi et al. (2012); Rhodes et al. (2012); Holguín-Veras et al. (2013b); New York State Department of Transportation (2013) Exhibit 74. Initiative T22: Vehicle size and weight restrictions.

178 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Truck Routes Description: This is a special type of vehicle restriction that specifies the components of the transportation net- work that can be used by freight traffic; there can be multiple layers of truck routes. Truck routes are sometimes used to prevent freight vehicles from using unsuitable or sensitive routes. Targeted mode: Large trucks Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Access and Vehicle-Related Restrictions Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Truck routes require careful planning to consider the freight movement; origins and destinations; characteristics of the road network; and land-use patterns in a target area. The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement, and assess both positive and negative impacts in the target and contiguous areas. The costs are mainly those associated with the installation of guide signs, and efforts to enforce the truck route ordinances. These restrictions should be developed with a pavement management plan to prevent negative externalities of increased wear on these designated corridors. Advantages: • Enhances safety • Ensures hazardous materials are transported far from population centers • Provides guidance to transport overdimensional cargo • Discourages unnecessary truck movement in sen- sitive areas • Reduces infrastructure damage • Informs carriers about geometric and structural conditions of the network • Enhances livability • Improves State of Good Repair on previously used corridors Disadvantages: • Has high probability for unintended conse- quences: - Increased operational costs - Increased VMT - Increased congestion • Can be challenging to ensure accessibility • Requires proper communication, education, and enforcement by authorities • Requires high coordination among jurisdictions Examples: • Advisory truck routes: legal advisory route system, California (California Department of Transportation 2012) • Statutory truck routes: truck route system, which categorizes truck routes into three classes with different constraints on truck weights and dimensions, Chicago, IL (Illinois Department of Transportation 2014) • Truck routes have been implemented in Italian cities; Bremen, Germany; Athens, Greece; Crete, Greece; Palma de Mallorca, Spain; Usti, Czech Republic; Vratsa, Bulgaria; NYC, NY (New York City Department of Transportation 2003; BESTUFS 2007) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related alternatives: Ring Roads; Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes; Removal of Geometric Constraints at Intersections; Vehicle Size and Weight Restrictions; Real-Time Information Systems; Relocate LTGs, If War- ranted References: New York City Department of Transportation (2003); BESTUFS (2007); Quak (2008); Holguín- Veras et al. (2011b); Suffolk County Council (2011); California Department of Transportation (2012) Exhibit 75. Initiative T23: Truck routes.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 179   Engine-Related Restrictions Description: This is a special case of vehicle restriction granting access to a target area only for vehicles that meet a certain level of environmental standard. These strategies try to reduce the environmental externalities of freight traffic by fostering the use of environmentally friendly technologies. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Access and Vehicle-Related Restrictions Primary objective: Reduce pollution Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Engine-related restrictions require careful planning that should include stakeholder engagement, a full assessment of possible outcomes, and an analysis of the initiative’s objec- tives. For efficient implementation, additional strategies may be required (e.g., dedicated loading and unloading zones, UCCs). Advantages: • Enhances environmental sustainability • When combined with eco-loading zones: - May increase efficiency - May decrease operational costs Disadvantages: • May have high probability for unintended conse- quences: - Increased operational costs • Requires carriers to upgrade their fleets • May be hard to enforce Examples: • European cities: Copenhagen, Denmark; Amsterdam, Netherlands; Berlin, Germany; and London, Eng- land (Quak 2008; PARFUM 2009; LEEZEN 2010) • Combined Engine Relate Restrictions with Eco-Loading Zones: Bremen, Germany (LEEZEN 2010) • Clean Truck Program Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, CA (Port of Los Angeles 2012) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related alternatives: Emission Standards; Low Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations; Low Emission Zones Operational Incentive for Electric and Low Emission Vehicles; Anti-idling Programs References: Quak (2008); PARFUM (2009); LEEZEN (2010); Port of Los Angeles (2012, 2013a); American Transportation Research Institute (2014) Exhibit 76. Initiative T24: Engine-related restrictions.

180 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Low Emission Zones Description: LEZs are environmentally sensitive areas where vehicle access (both passenger and freight) is con- strained. LEZs may ban all vehicular traffic, or just vehicles that do not meet a minimum environmental standard (engine-related restrictions). Targeted mode: All traffic, large trucks Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Access and Vehicle-Related Restrictions Primary objective: Environmental sustainability Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement to analyze impacts both in and out of the impacted area, and should be done in accordance with environmental legislation. The main costs may be related to enforcement technologies, such as license plate recog- nition. Advantages: • Enhances environmental sustainability - Improves air quality - Reduces noise • Has society support • Reduces congestion inside the target area Disadvantages: • High probability for unintended consequences: - Increased operational costs - Increased congestion - Hampered economic activity Examples: • European cities: Stockholm, Sweden; Göteborg, Sweden; Malmö, Sweden; Lund, Sweden; Rome, Italy; Milan, Italy; Berlin, Germany; Amsterdam, Netherlands; London, England; Madrid, Spain; Paris, France; Copenhagen, Denmark; and Budapest, Hungary (Quak 2008; TURBLOG 2009; C-LIEGE 2010; LEEZEN 2010; Transport for London 2012) • Oregon, United States (Oregon Department of Transportation 2009) Source: (Oregon Department of Transportation 2009) Related alternatives: Emission Standards; Engine-Related Restrictions; Road Pricing; Operational Incentives for Electric and Low Emission Vehicles; Anti-idling Programs References: Quak (2008); Oregon Department of Transportation (2009); TURBLOG (2009); C-LIEGE (2010); LEEZEN (2010); Transport for London (2012) Exhibit 77. Initiative T25: Low emission zones.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 181   Load Factor Restrictions Description: These strategies require a minimum load factor (percent of truck capacity being used) per truck to reduce the number of freight trips entering a target area. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Access and Vehicle-Related Restrictions Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: These restrictions require careful planning, stakeholder en- gagement, and a complete understanding of the markets, supply chain practices, and industries. A full assessment of possible outcomes is required, as is an analysis of the initiative’s objectives. These types of restrictions are difficult to enforce because they require physical inspection of freight vehicles. Advantages: • Induces cargo consolidation - Increases efficiency - Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces infrastructure damage • Improves accessibility • Enhances safety • Enhances livability Disadvantages: • May not be reasonable; load factors are the result of market conditions, not logistics decisions • Target area may be at the end of delivery route, where the load factor is expected to be low • Has high probability of unintended consequences - Increased congestion (smaller vehicles per large truck deterred) - Increased operational costs - Increased VMT outside target area - Increased infrastructure damage • Is hard to enforce: requires physical inspection of the vehicles - Increased congestion outside target area - Consumes resources Examples: • The cases of Ravenna, Italy (START 2009); Göteborg, Sweden, and Copenhagen, Denmark (BESTUFS 2007) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related alternatives: Daytime Delivery Restrictions; Daytime Delivery Bans; Road Pricing; Pickups and De- liveries to Alternate Locations References: BESTUFS (2007); START (2009); Holguín-Veras et al. (2011b) Exhibit 78. Initiative T26: Load factor restrictions.

182 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Time Access Restrictions and Delivery Time Windows Description: These are strategies that restrict the times at which freight activity can take place, including delivery time windows, daytime delivery bans, or nighttime delivery bans. Targeted mode: All traffic, large trucks Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Time Access Restrictions Primary objective: Reduce congestion and improve environmental sustainability Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Time access restrictions require planning that considers the characteristics of the area’s freight movement, industries, and land use, extensive stakeholder engagement, and an assessment of both positive and negative impacts to all economic agents involved. The costs are associated with the installation of traffic signs, and efforts associated with meeting the requirements of local businesses. Advantages (daytime delivery restrictions): • Improves parking availability during ban interval • Improves service time • Improves reliability • Decreases operational costs • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety • Decreases congestion Disadvantages (daytime delivery restrictions): • High probability for unintended consequences: - Increased idling - Increased VMT - Increased congestion outside target area - Increased operational costs • Requires high coordination among jurisdictions Advantages (daytime delivery bans): • Reduces congestion • Decreases operational costs • Reduces congestion during daytime • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances livability Disadvantages (daytime delivery bans): • High probability for unintended consequences: - Increased receivers’ costs - Increased congestion in the early morning or at end of working day - Increased noise impact • May require incentives to offset additional costs Advantages (nighttime delivery bans): • Enhances environmental sustainability: reduces noise emissions Disadvantages (nighttime delivery bans): • Increased congestion during daytime • Increased operational costs • Reduced operational capacity Examples: • Time windows in Lucca, Italy; Toulouse, France; Paris, France; London, England (City Ports 2005; SUGAR 2011) • Time windows and loading restrictions in Göteborg, Sweden (START 2009) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Related alternatives: Staggered Work-Hour Programs; Load Factor Restrictions; Voluntary Off-Hour Delivery Programs; Vehicle Size and Weight Restrictions; Urban Consolidation Centers; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs References: Allen et al. (2003); City Ports (2005); Department for Transport (2006); BESTUFS (2007); Quak and de Koster (2007); Quak (2008); Van Rooijen et al. (2008); Quak and de Koster (2009); START (2009); C- LIEGE (2010); Holguín-Veras et al. (2011b); SUGAR (2011); Holguín-Veras et al. (2012c) Exhibit 79. Initiatives T27, T28, and T29: Time access restrictions and delivery time windows.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 183   Restricted Multiuse Lanes Description: This initiative promotes the use of available road capacity by allocating restricted lane right-of-way to trucks, buses, and, occasionally, high-occupancy vehicles. The lane usage can be (a) allocated to different users using time windows, (b) shared among designated users all day, or (c) restricted to certain users. Restrictions can be by vehicle type, or they can allow mixed traffic during the restriction interval. Targeted mode: All traffic, large trucks Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Traffic Con- trol and Lane Management Primary objective: Optimize road capacity Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Lane management strategies and restrictions to multiuse lanes require thorough planning to consider the characteristics of the network and the needs of different users. Planning should involve extensive stakeholder engagement, and weigh both the positive and negative impacts to all agents that are part of the system. The costs are mainly associated with the installation of variable message signs, or changeable message signs, and enforcement resources. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances safety • Increases efficiency • Enhances livability • Can be used as incentive to foster other strategies Disadvantages: • May confuse drivers • May conflict with other traffic users • May not be adequate for sensitive locations • Is hard to enforce • Lane geometry may not be adequate for large trucks Examples: • Multifunctional lanes in its commercial center: Barcelona, Spain (City Ports 2005) • Clean vehicles are allowed to use public transport lanes: Göteborg, Sweden (START 2009) • Consolidation vehicles are allowed to use bus lanes: Bristol, England (START 2009) • Truck lane restricted to right lane: NYC, NY (City of New York 2012), North Carolina (Federal Highway Administration 2011; North Carolina Department of Transportation 2013) • Ban on through-trucks on Interstate inside the perimeter freeway: Georgia, United States (Georgia Depart- ment of Public Safety 2010) Source: (Federal Highway Administration 2011) Related alternatives: Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes; Traffic Control; Dynamic Routing References: Ogden (1992); City Ports (2005); BESTUFS (2007); START (2009); Georgia Department of Public Safety (2010); Federal Highway Administration (2011); SUGAR (2011); The City of New York (2012); North Carolina Department of Transportation (2013) Exhibit 80. Initiative T30: Restricted multiuse lanes.

184 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Exclusive Truck Lanes Description: Allocate restricted lane right-of-way exclusively to trucks. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Traffic Con- trol and Lane Management Primary objective: Decrease congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Exclusive truck lanes require careful planning, extensive stake- holder engagement (both private and public), and an assessment of the potential impacts to all agents of the freight and other relevant economic systems. This initiative requires a large capital investment. Advantages: • For interstate areas - Increases efficiency - Improves reliability - Enhances safety - Enhances environmental sustainability • Revenue stream using tolls can overcome invest- ment and operating costs Disadvantages: • Requires high capital investments • Reduces road capacity for other vehicle types • May not be adequate for metropolitan locations Examples: • Georgia DOT Statewide Truck Lanes Needs Identification Study • Georgia DOT State Route 6 “Truck Friendly Lanes” • Georgia Managed Lane System Plan • I-70 Truck Lane Feasibility Study Source: (Federal Highway Administration 2011) Related alternatives: Ring Roads; Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes; Traffic Control References: Texas Transportation Institute (2002); Holguín-Veras et al. (2003); Reich et al. (2003); Meyer (2006); Georgia Department of Transportation (2008); Burke et al. (2011); Federal Highway Administration (2011); Georgia Department of Transportation (2011c); U.S. Department of Transportation (2012a); Georgia Department of Transportation (2013) Exhibit 81. Initiative T31: Exclusive truck lanes.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 185   Traffic Control Description: These are strategies to monitor and control traffic with signs, equipment, and devices. Among the approaches used to assist truck drivers are signs that provide information about speed limits, access restrictions, loading zones, and other regulations. Another type of initiative focuses on the coordination of traffic signals. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Corridor Type of initiative: Traffic Management: Traffic Con- trol and Lane Management Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Traffic control strategies should consider road users, network characteristics, and traffic patterns. The planning should involve stakeholder engagement to assess the impacts to all relevant economic agents. This initiative requires investments in variable message signs (VMS), and the col- lection, analysis, and dissemination of real-life traffic information. Advantages: • Decreases congestion • Enhances safety • Increases efficiency • Coordination of traffic signals - Improves system performance - Reduces number of stops - Enhances environmental sustainability - Reduces travel times Disadvantages: • Traffic signal coordination is often calibrated for passenger vehicles, not truck traffic • May produce adverse effects on other modes Examples: • Variable Message Signs (VMS) are used in Barcelona, Spain, to inform about access regulations (City Ports 2005,23) • VMS are used in Oregon for truck advisory (Oregon Department of Transportation 2013) Source: (Oregon Department of Transportation 2013) Related alternatives: Restricted Multiuse Lanes; Exclusive Truck Lanes; Dynamic Routing References: Ogden (1992); BESTUFS (2007); SUGAR (2011) Exhibit 82. Initiative T32: Traffic control.

186 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 9.5 Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation These strategies use monetary signals to achieve predefined public goals such as revenue genera- tion, fostering the use of emerging technologies, or demand management, among many others. Pricing, incentives, and taxation can encourage the provision of adequate freight facilities to ensure that the movement of freight is not impeded. 9.5.1 Pricing Initiative T33: Road Pricing Freight road pricing has been recommended to reduce freight traffic by promoting a better use of transportation capacity (Ogden 1992; City Ports 2005; BESTUFS 2007; Allen and Browne 2010; PIARC 2011). In theory, the increase in transportation costs produced by the toll would lead to a reduction in truck traffic; however, the empirical research conducted indicates that, in the case of cordon time-of-day pricing in competitive markets, this is not the case. Carriers cannot unilaterally change delivery schedules and have limited power to transfer the toll costs to their customers. For example, following the 2001 toll increases enacted by the PANYNJ Time- of-Day Pricing Initiative, only 9% of the carriers were able to pass the toll costs on to the receivers (Holguín-Veras et al. 2006b). If no price signal reaches the receivers, cordon time-of-day pricing will not impact their behavior. In both the PANYNJ case and in London, England, cordon time-of-day pricing had no noticeable impact on peak-hour truck traffic. This reflects the highly competitive market conditions produced by truck oversupply. As a result, carriers tend to absorb the toll costs and to avoid any operational changes that could upset their customers and lead to loss of business. Although cordon time-of-day tolls do not change freight demand—because the toll is a fixed cost that most carriers find difficult to pass on—time-distance-pricing tolls could be passed on to the customers as a variable cost that enters into their distance-based contracts (Holguín-Veras 2011). For time-distance-pricing tolls to change receiver behavior, however, the tolls have to be very high, which may not be politically acceptable. The current thinking is that cordon time-of-day tolls road pricing is of limited effectiveness for freight demand manage- ment, although it could play a key role in revenue generation. Exhibit 83 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T33. Initiative T34: Parking Pricing Parking pricing is intertwined with the allocation of curb space among all potential users. A proper amount of spaces and the locations of the spaces allocated to freight vehicles are essential to program success. The main issue is that often cities fail to allocate enough parking for freight activity, which results in significant parking violations and fines (Jaller et al. 2013a). In NYC, for example, most carriers spend between $500 to $1,000/month per truck on parking fines (Holguín-Veras et al. 2007; 2008b). Given a fair and proper allocation of curb space, parking pricing can play a key role in a sustainability initiative, protect historical areas, and improve traffic conditions (PIARC 2011) by increasing turnover, reducing parking dwell times, and generating revenues for infrastructure and mobility improvements (City Ports 2005). In Copenhagen, Denmark, differential parking charges were set in the medieval part of the city to reduce pollu- tion and foster the use of environmentally friendly vehicles. Similarly, the NYC DOT’s Com- mercial Parking/Congestion Pricing program uses parking prices to foster turnover and a better use of curb space. Exhibit 84 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T34. 9.5.2 Incentives These programs seek to foster sustainable practices by incentivizing one or more participants in the supply chain, using both monetary and nonmonetary incentives. In this context,

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 187   combining the power of incentives and regulations is likely to have a meaningful impact on the behavior of freight agents. The public sector can provide incentives to foster adoption of environmentally friendly vehicles or engine replacement, while charging penalties to carriers using inefficient vehicles, and regulating minimum environmental standards. Incentive pro- grams can be enhanced by promoting sustainable practices among stakeholders. Citizens, end users, and consumers should be involved because they have the power to reward best practices with their purchases, potentially influencing behavior throughout the supply chain. The “Carrotmob” concept provides an interesting model of a program that could play a trans- formative role, by using the power of consumers to foster change in the urban freight system (Diziain 2013). Initiative T35: Recognition Programs Recognition programs use the power of public acknowledgment of outstanding achievements to indirectly encourage others to follow suit. Unlike certification programs, however, recog- nition programs do not necessarily assist other companies with the means—advice, plans, or benchmarking systems—to achieve the level of performance necessary to receive recognition (Noise Abatement Society 2013). Not much literature exists on the effectiveness of public recog- nition programs or how to structure them. One of the very few research efforts is related to the OHD project in NYC (Holguín-Veras et al. 2014), where econometric models have shown that public recognition does increase the likelihood of participation in unassisted OHD. Recognition of good behavior fosters good behavior. Moreover, such programs tend to improve relations between the private and public sectors, which can pave the way for other more challenging implementations and cooperation. Exhibit 85 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T35. Initiative T36: Certification Programs These programs recognize participants that achieve a minimum level of performance and follow a clear path to certification. These schemes can be structured in various ways, depending on the metrics and attributes considered, and who is participating or included in the system. Comprehensive programs aim to address the majority, if not all, aspects of a company’s operations (Transport for London 2013b), such as driver skills and driver management, vehicle mainte- nance, transport operations, and performance management. In most cases, these are voluntary programs that set specifications for reaching different achievement levels, such as bronze, silver, or gold. Area-specific recognition programs often concentrate on environmental impacts. Other focus areas include managing driver skills, safety, and the use of information technology to enhance operations (Freight Transport Association 2013; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013). Exhibit 85 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T36. Initiative T37: Operational Incentives for Electric and Low Emission Vehicles This group of strategies provides operational incentives to carriers, such as preferential access to restricted areas, to foster use of electric and low emission vehicles (BESTUFS 2007). For example, UCCs in Norway use clean vehicles for last-mile deliveries to take advantage of priority lane policies. In Germany, the City of Bremen provides preferential access to choice parking places to freight vehicles that meet the strictest environmental standards (PARFUM 2009). The allocation of a scarce public good, like parking, in such a way could foster sustain- ability of urban freight operations. In NYC, Green Loading Zones are considered a solution to incentivize the adoption of electric vehicles because they provide curb space exclusively to electric trucks (New York State Department of Transportation 2014). Exhibit 85 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T37.

188 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools 9.5.3 Taxation Initiative T38: Taxation Taxation is routinely used to raise revenues and foster behavior changes that will lead to public benefits. Examples include tax incentives for consumers who buy electric vehicles or for companies that use energy efficient equipment (City Ports 2005; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013). For the most part, because of compliance verification considerations, tax incentives or penalties are usually tied to purchases that are easy to verify. A central principle of these efforts is to ensure that the tax signals reach the key decision-maker. In this regard, the important role of the receiver has often been overlooked. If properly designed, a mix of incentives and penalties could be more effective than solely punitive policies, and would be more likely to be accepted by the public and business community. Tax incentive programs geared to carriers could accel- erate the adoption of electric and low emission vehicles, as has been seen in the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and France (BESTUFS 2007). The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (2011) has a number of incentive programs: a $3.2 billion program to help operators replace non-compliant vehicles with new ones that comply with the latest emission standards; tax incentives by which carriers can deduct capital expenditures on environmentally friendly vehicles; and the Pilot Green Transport Fund to encourage freight carrier operators to test out green and low-carbon transport technologies. In the United States, some federal and state incen- tives exist for electric trucks (Plug In America 2013), including the Environmental Protection Agency’s SmartWay finance program that assists small carriers by providing access to low-cost financing for SmartWay-verified technologies and clean trucks (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013). Exhibit 86 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T38.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 189   Road Pricing Description: This initiative involves a demand management tool to reduce traffic, promote a better use of trans- portation capacity, and reduce environmental impacts in urban areas. Pricing revenues often are used to finance the construction and maintenance costs of urban infrastructure, and often are implemented using (electronic) cor- don tolls located at the fringe of the cities in tunnels or bridges. Targeted mode: All traffic, large trucks Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Pricing Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve thorough stakeholder engagement to analyze impacts both in and outside the impacted area. The differences between truck types should be considered to avoid overpricing large trucks. Pricing strategies are effective when implemented as part of a group of strategies (e.g., to finance freight-related programs, to foster the use of environmentally friendly vehi- cles). The costs are mainly those associated with the construction and operation of toll facilities. Advantages: • Generates revenue • If implemented as part of a broader program in- volving incentives for receivers: - Reduces congestion - Enhances environmental sustainability - Increases efficiency - Improves reliability Disadvantages: • Limited effectiveness as a freight demand man- agement tool: most truckers have to travel when customers demand it • Politically unfeasible: effective time-distance pricing would be extremely high • Difficult to define the optimal charge • Probability for unintended consequences: - Operators to relocate their businesses - Decreased operational costs - Increased VMT (use of smaller vehicles) Examples: • London, England, congestion charging • NYC, NY • Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, CA • SR 91 express lanes in Orange County, CA • Stockholm, Sweden, congestion charging Related alternatives: Low Emission Zones; Load Factor Restrictions; Taxation References: Ogden (1992); City Ports (2005); Holguín-Veras (2006); BESTUFS (2007); PierPASS (2007); Holguín-Veras (2008); Allen and Browne (2010); C-LIEGE (2010); Holguín-Veras (2011); PIARC (2011) Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) Source: (http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications /fhwahop08039/images/ch5_1.jpg_) Exhibit 83. Initiative T33: Road pricing.

190 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Parking Pricing Description: This initiative involves charging for the use of curb space. Fixed rates and variable or differentiated pricing schemes are considered. Targeted mode: All traffic, LTGs Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Pricing Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Stakeholder engagement should play a part in the planning process, to analyze potential impacts in and outside of the target area. To avoid overpricing large trucks, the differences between truck types should be considered. These pricing strategies are effective when implemented as part of a group of strategies (e.g., to finance freight-related programs, to foster the use of environmentally friendly vehicles). Advantages: • Generates revenue: finance construction and maintenance of parking facilities • Enhances livability: protect historical areas • Reduces parking dwell times • If implemented as part of a broader parking pro- gram: - Reduces congestion - Enhances environmental sustainability - Increases efficiency - Improves reliability Disadvantages: • Limited effectiveness as a freight demand man- agement tool • Difficult to define the optimal charge • Increased operational costs: operational con- straints often result in parking violations • May not induce a shift to alternative modes: lack of alternative modes in the United States • Requires large curb space to be allocated for freight vehicles • Potential for unintended consequences: - Increased congestion Examples: • Copenhagen, Denmark: differential parking • Park Smart Program in NYC, NY Source: (http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/images/motorist/parksmart-decal.jpg) Related alternatives: Freight Parking and Loading Zones; Loading and Parking Restrictions; Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems References: City Ports (2005); Cambridge Systematics, Inc. (2007); Holguín-Veras et al. (2007, 2008b); PIARC (2011); Jaller et al. (2013a) Exhibit 84. Initiative T34: Parking pricing.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 191   Recognition and Certification Programs, and Incentives Description: Platforms are implemented to encourage and reward sustainable practices throughout the supply chain. There are three main types: comprehensive, area-specific, and award programs. Targeted modes: All traffic, waterways, rail, air Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Incentives Primary objective: Environmental sustainability Expected costs and level of effort to implement: All agents in the logistics chain should be included in the program, which may necessitate extensive outreach. These programs are often the product of partnerships between public agencies and freight transportation associations. Carriers generally have to pay to enter the certification program. Advantages: • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances economic competitiveness • Reduces congestion • Fosters the use of alternative vehicles • Enhances safety Disadvantages: • Requires exceptional dissemination • Requires training programs • Requires high coordination among multiple jurisdictions and stakeholders • Is appropriate for carriers serving large genera- tors Examples: • The Noise Abatement Society John Connell Award: United Kingdom (Noise Abatement Society 2013) • Fleet Operator Recognition Scheme: England (Transport for London 2013b) • The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency SmartWay program (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013) Source: (http://www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus/sw-overview.htm) Related alternatives: Receiver-Led Delivery Consolidation Programs; Engine-Related Restrictions; Operational Incentives for Electric and Low Emission Vehicles; Driver Training Programs; Voluntary Off-Hour Delivery Programs; Emission Standards; Low Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations; Low Emission Zones; Recognition Programs; Certification Programs References: Care4Air (2013); Cargonews Asia (2013); Foundation for Promoting Personal Mobility and Ecological Transportation (2013); Freight Transport Association (2013); Noise Abatement Society (2013); Transport for London (2013b); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Exhibit 85. Initiatives T35, T36, and T37: Recognition and certification programs, and incentives.

192 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Taxation Description: Initiatives are used to raise revenues and foster behavior changes that will lead to public benefits. Targeted mode: All traffic, large trucks Geographic scope: Nation, city Type of initiative: Pricing, Incentives, and Taxation: Taxation Primary objective: Generate revenue Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement to analyze potential impacts. Care should be taken to ensure that the objectives of the taxation policy are clear, and that the type of taxation chosen will reach the intended decision-maker. As with other types of taxation, this initiative may encounter political opposition. Advantages: • Generates revenue • Is designed as a mix of incentives and penalties: - May be more effective than punitive policies - May gain society support Disadvantages: • Has low probability for unintended conse- quences: - Tax signals may not reach key decision- makers - May induce undesirable behavioral changes • Difficult to define the optimal charge Examples: • The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency SmartWay program (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013) • Stockholm, Sweden, electric vehicle program (Vitoriano Begona et al. 2011) • Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department 2011) Source: (Nagurney et al. 2002) Source: (Vitoriano Begona et al. 2011) Related alternatives: Emission Standards; Road Pricing; Relocate LTGs, If Warranted References: City Ports (2005); BESTUFS (2007); Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (2011); Vitoriano Begona et al. (2011); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Exhibit 86. Initiative T38: Taxation.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 193   9.6 Logistics Management ITS could play a key role in increasing the efficiency and reliability of urban distribution (BESTUFS 2007). Several ITS programs have proven effective (SUGAR 2011). In Berlin, Germany; London, England; and Paris, France, urban traffic management centers provide route guidance to freight drivers regarding preferred routes, vehicle height and weight restric- tions, access and loading regulations, and locations of truck parks. Slot booking systems are used to coordinate truck arrivals at major sites generating large flows and reducing congestion. 9.6.1 Intelligent Transportation Systems Initiative T39: Real-Time Information Systems To facilitate planning and logistics responding to traffic changes, the freight sector needs real- time information in terms of (1) road safety (e.g., situational safety, accidents, vertical height information, weather information, road conditions, and roadwork zones); (2) congestion (e.g., congestion data, cost information, toll facilities, parking facilities, and kiosks at truck stops); (3) regulatory compliance (e.g., road restrictions, limit travel speed, and weigh station locations); and (4) supply chain information (e.g., loading and unloading information; delays; pickup and delivery notification; pre-notification of truck arrival; real-time container status and gate activity; wait times at intermodal facilities; and advanced notice of fees due) (U.S. Department of Trans- portation 2003; RITA 2011; Ranaiefar 2012; U.S. Department of Transportation 2003, 2012b; Butler 2013). Exhibit 87 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T39. Initiative T40: Dynamic Routing The implementation of in-vehicle routing and navigation systems seeks to improve the safety and efficiency of commercial vehicle operations. The public sector’s initial interest was to pro- vide routing guidance and to implement ITS for commercial operations focused mainly on road safety, congestion reduction, and securing of efficient regulatory compliance (BESTUFS 2007; Wolfe and Troup 2013). Therefore, most of the dynamic routing systems managed by the public sector guide truck drivers to routes that comply with access regulations, and when real-time information systems (RTIS) are available, the routing also seeks to deviate truck traffic from roads that are already congested. Dynamic routing systems rely on on-board technologies, such as vehicle telematics, GPS, and in-cab communication systems for real-time guidance. Implemen- tation of this initiative requires (1) that the public sector put in place an infrastructure for RTIS (where it is not yet in place); (2) a communication architecture to provide dynamic travel times; and (3) investment in fleet management software and equipment from the private sector. Some cities that have implemented this initiative include Berlin, Germany; London, England; Paris, France; and NYC, New York (BESTUFS 2007; PIARC 2011). Exhibit 88 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T40. Initiative T41: Vertical Height Detection Systems Vertical height detection systems (VHDS), also known as over-height vehicle detection systems, are ITS implemented to warn truck drivers when their vehicles surpass the maximum height of an upcoming road structure (e.g., bridge, tunnel, or sign gantry) (NZ Transport Agency 2011; International Road Dynamics Inc. 2014). VHDS have a detector with a transmitter that pulses a beam of infrared light or visible red light across the highway to a receiver. If an over-height truck is crossing the location of the VHDS, the truck will interfere with the beam, and a warning (audible alarm, visible sign, or both) will be generated to make the driver aware of the hazard ahead. The system provides alternatives (e.g., a sign showing available road exits) to the driver to take an alternate route and avoid crashing into approaching infrastructure (International Road

194 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Dynamics Inc. 2014). VHDS work well under conditions of normal weather, rain, fog, and snow, and they are capable of detecting an over-height truck traveling between low speeds (1 mph) to high speeds (75 to 100 mph) (Mattingly 2003; International Road Dynamics Inc. 2014). VHDS have been very effective in reducing damage to structures by over-height vehicles. For example, Mattingly (2003) analyzed VHDS in 29 states in the United States and found signifi- cant reductions in 73% of the states where VHDS were implemented. This type of system has been successfully implemented in London, England (SUGAR 2011). In the Blackwall Tunnel in London, the use of VHDS reduced by 38% the number of over-height incidents (ITS Inter national 2013). Although VHDS are often reliable, in some cases false positives (e.g., birds) have produced system failures. The system fails occasionally and generates on average one collision every 2 months on a road carrying 6,000 to 12,000 trucks/day in Pennsylvania (Mattingly 2003). Exhibit 89 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T41. 9.6.2 Last-Mile Delivery Practices Initiatives that relate to last-mile delivery practices seek to improve the final section of the supply chain, where goods are delivered to their ultimate destinations, which is often one of the chain’s most expensive components. To increase the effectiveness of public-sector initiatives, the private sector must also invest in efforts to improve their logistics activities. For example, effort is required to optimize the loading of vehicles at their origins to conduct effective and effi- cient offloading activities at destinations. Cargo must be loaded to minimize the time required for unloading, reception, and verification activities. Initiative T42: Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs This initiative reduces the negative impacts of pickups and deliveries to LTGs, such as govern- ment offices, colleges, hospitals, and large buildings housing hundreds of commercial establish- ments. Often located in high-value locations where space is at a premium, these properties tend to have minimal loading and storage space for deliveries. If drivers cannot find space in the loading dock, they often have to double-park or circle around to find a space. Reducing the exter- nalities produced by LTGs is crucial, because they generate a sizable portion of the truck traffic in large cities. On Manhattan Island in New York City, just 56 large buildings generate 4% of the total truck traffic (Jaller et al. 2013b). LTGs, and the associated parking and loading and unloading maneuvers, generate substantial congestion. Time-slotting of deliveries at LTGs provides an opportunity to efficiently use the delivery areas and avoid these problems. Exhibit 90 summa- rizes essential characteristics of Initiative T42. Initiative T43: Driver Training Programs These programs seek to change driver behavior and enhance driver competencies to improve delivery efficiency, energy consumption, environmental impacts, and the safety of all road users. Drivers can be trained to drive in eco-friendly ways that save fuel and reduce emissions, or to handle deliveries in a quiet manner so that night deliveries do not disturb neighborhoods (Goevaers 2011). Training includes presentations, vehicle checks, driving assessment, driver debriefs, demo drives, and driver knowledge tests. On completion of the training, participants receive written assessments and certificates (Department for Transport 2007). Experience suggests that driver training programs are a cost-effective approach to improving delivery efficiency; however, implementation of these programs requires close collaboration between the public and private sectors; clearly defined goals; professional instructors; well-organized training materials; and a carefully planned certifica- tion program to ensure success. Exhibit 91 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T43. Initiative T44: Anti-idling Programs These programs attempt to reduce the pollution caused by idling trucks. In the United States, various programs have been implemented that focus on technologies, economic incentives,

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 195   regulations, and education. One important step toward the reduction of idling is truck stop electrification, and the 5-minute limitation on diesel truck idling implemented across the states (California Department of Transportation 2012). The U.S. Department of Energy has spon- sored research and development to produce new anti-idling technologies. Although several implementations have been conducted in the United States, these technologies are unfortu- nately underused, and they have not achieved their full potential (Skukowski 2012). The EPA launched the SmartWay Transport Partnership in part to foster use of anti-idling technolo- gies (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013). The success of these programs relies on an integrated consideration of regulations, technologies, incentives, public education, and effective stakeholder coordination. Exhibit 92 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T44. Initiative T45: Pickups and Deliveries to Alternate Locations These initiatives foster the use of alternate locations for pickups and deliveries, such as delivery lockers and post offices, which are used as local freight collection and distribution mini- depots (Augereau and Dablanc 2008). Instead of trucks making the final deliveries, customers travel to the pickup area to retrieve their goods. These practices are believed to reduce delivery costs and the number of delivery attempts. However, some researchers argue that compared with home deliveries, having customers pick up the orders using their own cars may increase the overall traffic. To be socially beneficial, the alternate locations need to be at places where customers only need to make short deviations from their daily routines (BESTUFS 2007). Exhibit 93 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T45.

196 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Real-Time Information Systems Description: RTIS are a set of technologies and strategies that monitor and manage traffic based on real-time traffic information in terms of (1) road safety, (2) congestion, (3) regulatory compliance, and (4) supply chain information. RTIS rely on a computer system that responds to activities and facts (captured data) generating an immediate response (information to user). RTIS have a direct impact on real-time decision-making for freight transportation system users and managers. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Intelligent Transportation Systems Primary objective: Improve logistics operations Expected costs and level of effort to implement: RTIS are based on ITS; they require careful planning to con- sider the freight movement, road network, and land use in the area. The planning process should involve the engagement of stakeholders and the participation of the government (e.g., DOTs). The costs are mainly those associated with the operational cost of the management system, data collection, analysis, and dissemination. There are different RTIS, ranging from low-cost technology installations (e.g., toll and parking facilities) to large-scale networks of systems (e.g., intermodal facilities). Advantages: • Increases efficiency • Reduces operational costs • Improves reliability • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces fuel consumption Disadvantages: • Requires management of data • Requires real-life traffic information • Requires very high or high capital investments Examples: • In the United States: - The PANYNJ implemented the Freight Information Real-time System for Transport evaluation (FIRST) (U.S. Department of Transportation 2003). - The U.S. DOT implemented the Freight Advanced Traveler Information System in the Los Angeles- Gateway Region, Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas and South Florida (U.S. Department of Transportation 2012b; Butler 2013). - Some 65 travel management centers inform motorists of any incidents that occur on the highway dis- playing travel time messages on dynamic message signs during non-incident periods (U.S. Department of Transportation 2013). - Washington State DOT uses the Commercial Vehicle Information Systems and Networks to obtain real-time travel information, monitoring, and enforcement for commercial vehicles (Washington State Department of Transportation 2012; 2014b; 2014a). - There are 45 active locations (38 states and seven metropolitan areas) that use the “511: America's Traveler Information Telephone Number System” to obtain a safer, more reliable, and efficient trans- portation system (Federal Highway Administration 2014). • In Barcelona, Spain, variable message signs (VMS) display real-time access regulations on multiuse lanes (SUGAR 2011). Source: (Iowa Department of Transportation 2014) Related alternatives: Vehicle Parking Reservation Systems; Truck Routes; Dynamic Routing; Vertical Height Detection Systems References: Taniguchi and Thompson (2002); U.S. Department of Transportation (2003); Marquez et al. (2004); BESTUFS (2007); Castle (2009); Department for Transport (2009); START (2009); C-LIEGE (2010); PIARC (2011); Reynolds (2011); RITA (2011); SUGAR (2011); Ranaiefar (2012); U.S. Department of Transportation (2012b); Ben-Akiva et al. (2013); Butler (2013); U.S. Department of Transportation (2013); Federal Highway Administration (2014); Iowa Department of Transportation (2014) Exhibit 87. Initiative T39: Real-time information systems.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 197   Dynamic Routing Description: Dynamic routing systems are used by public authorities to enhance safety and prevent violations of access regulations. The private sector uses in-vehicle routing as part of a decision-support system to enhance the efficiency of fleet management. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Intelligent Transportation Systems Primary objective: Improve traffic flow and effi- ciency, and enhance safety Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Truck routing and the decision-support system are based on ITS; they require high-quality real-time traffic data, information on the road network, and land use in the area. Large benefits can be expected when the guidance system is connected to commercial vehicle operation (CVO) systems to optimize fleet management. The planning process should include extensive stakeholder and govern- ment involvement. The costs are mainly those associated with the operational cost of the management system, data collection, analysis, and dissemination. There are different CVOs, ranging from low-cost technology instal- lations to large-scale networks of systems. Advantages: • Increases efficiency • Reduces operational costs • Improves reliability • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces fuel consumption Disadvantages: • Requires real-life traffic information • Requires very high or high capital investments Examples: • Examples of CVOs for truck guidance and coordination include Berlin, Germany; London, England; and Paris, France (BESTUFS 2007,27) • NYC, NY; Paris, France; and London, England, have successful freight traffic management centers (PIARC 2011) Source: (Dong et al. 2004) Related alternatives: Restricted Multiuse Lanes; Traffic Control; Real-Time Information Systems; Vertical Height Detection Systems References: Taniguchi and Thompson (2002); Marquez et al. (2004); BESTUFS (2007); Castle (2009); Department for Transport (2009); START (2009); C-LIEGE (2010); PIARC (2011); Reynolds (2011); SUGAR (2011); Ben-Akiva et al. (2013) Exhibit 88. Initiative T40: Dynamic routing.

198 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Vertical Height Detection Systems Description: VHDS detect over-height trucks moving toward road structures, warning the truck driver to avoid collision with the structure. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Intelligent Transportation Systems Primary objective: Reduce damage to structures by over-height vehicles Expected costs and level of effort to implement: VHDS are based on ITS; they require careful planning to consider the freight movement, road network, and land use in the area. The planning process should involve the engagement of stakeholders and the participation of the government (e.g., DOTs). The costs are mainly those associated with the initial capital investments and operational costs. (Some VHDS use solar energy as the power source.) Advantages: • Decreases damage to infrastructure • Reduces occupant injuries and damage to trucks and trailers • Decreases traffic backups due to a reduction of ve- hicle collisions with overhead structures • Reduces accident claims due to a reduction of truck-overhead structure accidents • Has automatic notification of incident or violation Disadvantages: • Requires real-life traffic information • Requires very high or high capital invest- ments • Has false positives (e.g., birds) Examples: • Over-height vehicle detection on the Blackwall Tunnel, London, England (ITS International 2013) • Over-height vehicle detection system at the Duhail Interchange of the Doha Expressway (Qatar) (Traffic Tech Group 2013) Sources: (ITS International 2013; Traffic Tech Group 2013) Exhibit 89. Initiative T41: Vertical height detection systems.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 199   Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliveries at LTGs Description: Time-slotting of deliveries and pickups allows drivers to book their space before arriving at the delivery or pickup areas of LTGs. Given that LTGs are usually run by property management firms, managers are responsible for the daily operations of the facilities and they coordinate time slots, depending on the availability of the delivery or pickup area. Targeted mode: LTGs, urban deliveries Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Last-Mile Delivery Practices Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Time-slotting of deliveries requires extensive collaboration between receivers, LTG managers, and carriers. Costs are those associated with the platform and technology used to manage the appointments, bays, and spaces. Advantages: • Increases efficiency • Reduces congestion • Improves parking availability • Reduces VMT • Enhances environmental sustainability Disadvantages: • Has low probability for unintended conse- quences: - Some carriers may claim the booking sys- tem would increase their workload • Requires high or moderate coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions • Requires high or moderate capital investments Typical example: • Implementation of delivery space booking in Bilbao, Spain (C-LIEGE 2010) • Implementation of off-peak gate program at the Port of Vancouver, Canada (Dablanc et al. 2013) • Implementation of truck booking and time-slotting at GrainCorp, Australia (Regan and Garrido 2001) Source: (Regan and Garrido 2001) Related alternatives: Loading and Parking Restrictions; Timesharing of Parking Space; Improved Staging Areas; Nighttime Delivery Bans; Staggered Work-Hour Programs References: Regan and Garrido (2001); TURBLOG (2009); C-LIEGE (2010); FREILOT (2010); Holguín-Veras et al. (2010); Dablanc et al. (2013) Exhibit 90. Initiative T42: Time-slotting of pickups and deliveries at LTGs.

200 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Driver Training Programs Description: These programs improve deliveries by altering driver behaviors and enhancing driver competencies. Drivers’ attitudes and behaviors can directly affect delivery efficiency, energy consumption, environmental im- pacts, and the safety of all road users. Driver training programs vary according to their specific goals, which may include noise reduction, energy efficiency, or economic driving (also known as eco-driving, which is more envi- ronmentally friendly and fuel efficient). Training can include presentations, vehicle checks, driving assessments, driver debriefs, demo drives, and knowledge tests. On completion, participants receive written assessments and certificates. Targeted mode: All traffic Geographic scope: Nation, area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Last-Mile Delivery Practices Primary objective: Improve efficiency Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Driver training programs require coordination of public and private sectors; the programs should have clearly defined goals, professionally trained instructors, well-organized training materials, and a carefully planned certification program. The costs are those associated with developing training sessions, and with the ITS required to monitor driver behavior (on-board, on the road). Advantages: • Increases efficiency • Reduces VMT • Improves load factors • Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces fuel consumption • Enhances safety Disadvantages: • Requires moderate capital investments - May require additional systems to be installed on vehicles or on the road network • Requires moderate coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions Typical example: • Safe and Fuel Efficient Driving training program implemented in Bristol, United Kingdom, as part of the management of operations to reduce mileage and increase load factors (Department for Transport 2007) • FREILOT Eco-Driving program, European Union (FREILOT 2010) Sources: (FREILOT 2010; Yushimito et al. 2013b) Related alternatives: Low Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations; Certification Programs; Anti-idling Pro- grams References: Department for Transport (2007); C-LIEGE (2010); FREILOT (2010); Goevaers (2011); American Transportation Research Institute (2014) Exhibit 91. Initiative T43: Driver training programs.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 201   Anti-idling Programs Description: These programs reduce the pollution caused by idling truck engines. The most popular anti-idling technologies are fuel-operated coolant heaters, auxiliary power units, and truck stop electrification. Targeted mode: Large trucks Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Last-Mile Delivery Practices Primary objective: Reduce environmental impacts Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Anti-idling programs will play a more critical role as gas prices and environmental awareness increase. The main costs may be anti-idling technologies and environmental aware- ness campaigns. The success of these strategies, however, depends on an integrated consideration of regulations, technologies, financial incentives, public education, and an effective coordination between all involved stakehold- ers. Advantages: • Reduces fuel consumption • Enhances environmental sustainability Disadvantages: • May be difficult to implement broadly • Requires high or moderate capital investments Examples: • All six New England states in the United States have anti-idling regulations: Connecticut, Maine, Massachu- setts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2013) • Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department 2011) Source: (Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department 2011) Related alternatives: Engine-Related Restrictions; Low Emission Zones; Driver Training Programs References: Perrot et al. (2004); Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (2011); PIARC (2011); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2013); American Transportation Research Institute (2014) Exhibit 92. Initiative T44: Anti-idling programs.

202 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Pickups and Deliveries to Alternate Locations Description: These strategies are based on a change of pickup and delivery destinations to either a central pickup and drop-off point or delivery lockers, instead of to homes. Staffed pickup and drop-off sites and locker banks are two complementary ways to optimize the final leg of deliveries. Targeted mode: All traffic, large trucks Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Logistics Management: Last-Mile Delivery Practices Primary objective: Reduce failed delivery attempts Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Staffed pickup and drop-off sites and locker banks can be considered, based on careful examination of specific local conditions. The main costs may be related to security assurance and inventory reorganization. In addition, when staffed, labor costs are involved; for unassisted strate- gies, such as locker banks, initial investment may be high. Advantages: • Reduces operational costs • Enhances environmental sustainability • Reduces VMT • Increases efficiency • Uses locker banks instead of post offices in rural areas Disadvantages: • Has low probability for unintended conse- quences: - May cause security and liability issues - May induce an increase in traffic in the vicin- ity of the area or facility • Requires economies of scale on the vendor’s side - Require warehouse management and inven- tory reorganization • Requires very high or moderate coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions Examples: • Belgium, Luxemburg, Netherlands, France, Germany (Dortmund and Mainz), the United Kingdom, and Ben- elux (BESTUFS 2007) • FedEx in the United States (Apivatanagul and Regan 2008; FedEx 2010) Source: (Downs 2004) Source: (Apivatanagul and Regan 2008) Related alternatives: Load Factor Restrictions; Urban Consolidation Centers; Staggered Work-Hour Programs; Receiver-Led Delivery Consolidation Programs References: Siikavirta et al. (2003); BESTUFS (2007); Apivatanagul and Regan (2008); Augereau and Dablanc (2008); FedEx (2010) Exhibit 93. Initiative T45: Pickups and deliveries to alternate locations.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 203   9.7 Freight Demand Management Negative externalities produced by freight activities are addressed in these strategies by modifying the underlying freight demand as opposed to modifying the logistics activities or vehicle traffic. Initiative T46: Voluntary Off-Hour Delivery Programs To reduce congestion and pollution during daytime hours, this program induces a shift to deliveries made during off hours (7:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.) by providing incentives to receivers for their commitment to accept OHDs. This concept is fundamentally different from pricing and regulation strategies. First, its voluntary nature guarantees an increase in economic welfare simply because those businesses that decide to do OHD do so only if it benefits them. Second, it focuses on the receivers as the key decision-makers. It could be argued that a congestion charge to receivers would also be effective (as in the PierPASS Program in California’s Alameda Corridor), but there are substantial differences in political acceptability. Whereas the receiver congestion charge is bound to provoke stiff opposition from the business sector, the use of incentives as part of a voluntary participation program will likely engender substantial business support, as the NYC experience demonstrated. The central element of the NYC OHD program is the use of incentives to convince receivers to accept OHD. Once the participation of receivers is secured—given that receivers are the ones who might initially oppose the program—the support of suppliers will be forthcoming because they stand to gain from the lower costs of OHD. Financial incentives are needed to overcome the market failure that prevents the urban freight system from reaching its most efficient outcome: OHD. Due to the potentially large reductions in truck travel during regular hours, OHD has been used very effectively as a demand management mea- sure for special events, during which crippling congestion could lead to a paralysis of business activity. OHD was identified as one of the key factors in the success of the Games of the XXX Olympiad (2012 Summer Olympics) in London, England, where urban congestion was kept at a manageable level (Hendy 2012). OHD has been the subject of significant research on the effectiveness of incentives and pricing in changing behavior (Holguín-Veras et al. 2007; 2008b); the necessary conditions for OHD and pricing to succeed; formulations to estimate participation in OHD; market conditions that limit the effectiveness of freight road pricing (Holguín-Veras 2011); and the impacts of the pilot test conducted in NYC (Holguín-Veras et al. 2011c). The pilot revealed that the provision of a one-time incentive could lead receivers to agree to receive unassisted OHD. Essentially, for some receivers, there is no need for an ongoing incentive, making it easier for the public sector to implement OHD. Moreover, the research indicates that a willingness to accept unassisted OHD can be influenced by a variety of factors, including the one-time incentive, carrier discount, business support, public recognition, and the availability of trusted vendors (Holguín-Veras et al. 2017d). An interesting concept worthy of further study is a self-supported freight demand management system that uses the revenues raised by a small toll surcharge to finance an unassisted OHD program, and other freight-specific enhancements (Yushimito et al. 2013a). Exhibit 94 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T46. Initiative T47: Staggered Work-Hour Programs In passenger transport, there is a long history of staggered work-hour programs, which were originally intended to redistribute workers’ demand for public transportation. Such programs were considered as early as the 1920s. Formal experiments started in the 1950s, with interest increasing in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, though their use has declined since then. A similar concept can be applied to freight demand management by staggering receivers’ delivery hours, which could lead to reductions in truck traffic during peak periods. However, this idea has not yet been pilot tested. Exhibit 95 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T47.

204 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Initiative T48: Receiver-Led Delivery Consolidation Programs Delivery consolidation is closely related to, yet subtly different from, UCCs because it does not require the use of terminals. The deliveries are often consolidated at one of the shippers’ facilities rather than at a consolidation center (Nemoto 1997). At the receiver’s request, one supplier delivers its goods to another supplier, and has the latter make the final delivery to their common customer. Instead of shipping goods separately to their customers, suppliers combine their delivery services and make consolidated shipments. Such practices have been implemented by Transport for London in the form of delivery servicing plans by which LTGs, and receivers in general, assess their delivery patterns to identify areas that can be improved to mitigate impacts of those deliveries on traffic and the city (Transport for London 2013a). Other improvements, such as consolidating purchases to reduce the number of vendors and independent deliveries and delivery time changes to mitigate impacts on peak traffic, could also be considered. The lower the number of deliveries received, the more productive the business becomes without damaging profitability. A pilot test in London led to a reduction of 20% in the total number of deliveries made to a building (Transport for London 2013c). From the receiver’s perspective, such a practice helps save time spent receiving goods, and it minimizes interruptions to business. From the suppliers’ perspective, it increases truck load factors, and it reduces the number of deliveries and their costs. This combination of benefits could lead to a win-win solution. Exhibit 96 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T48. Initiative T49: Mode Shift Programs The aim of a mode shift program is to encourage the use of alternative modes to reduce the number of trucks in the city center. Although appealing to many, this initiative faces major obstacles in urban areas, where finding modal alternatives that effectively compete with trucks is seldom possible. However, some pilot tests and small implementations suggest that it is possible to induce small changes to mode shifts in niche markets, where conditions allow. The Petite Reine UCC in Rouen, France, which uses electrically assisted tricycles for deliveries, is a successful demonstration project. Truck drivers unload their parcels at the special delivery areas, and the parcels are then loaded onto “cargocycles” for last-leg delivery (SUGAR 2011). Another example of a mode shift program is the Cargotram in Zurich, Switzerland. A tramway is used to collect goods, such as bulky waste and electronic equipment, which are then forwarded to a waste collection center in the suburbs (SUGAR 2011). In the United States, NYC is evaluating the feasibility of using freight tricycles as part of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points certified supply chain (Kamga and Conway 2012). Exhibit 97 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T49.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 205   Voluntary Off-Hour Delivery Programs Description: These programs produce a shift of deliveries from regular hours (6:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m.) to off hours (7:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.). As opposed to pricing and regulation schemes, this travel demand management initiative targets receivers as the key decision-makers, seeking to convince them to accept deliveries during the less congested off hours through the use of incentives. Targeted mode: Urban deliveries, LTGs Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Freight Demand Management: Freight Demand Primary objective: Reduce congestion and pollution Expected costs and level of effort to implement: OHD programs require raising funds to provide incentives to receivers. Potential exists to implement a self-supported freight demand management system that uses the revenues raised by a small toll surcharge to finance the incentives. The implementation of the program—whether self-sup- ported or not—requires a multi-layered, multi-stakeholder, collaborative approach to gain substantial business sup- port and to accomplish a large shift to off hours. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Increases efficiency • Enhances environmental sustainability • Improves reliability • Enhances livability Disadvantages: • Has low probability for unintended conse- quences: - May increase perceived noise impact - Increases operational costs • Requires fundraising to provide the incentives • Requires very high or high coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions Examples: • The City of New York OHD Program, NY (Holguín-Veras et al. 2013b; Holguín-Veras et al. 2014) Source: (Glaeser 2011) Related alternatives: Low Noise Delivery Programs and Regulations; Daytime Delivery Restrictions; Daytime Delivery Bans; Recognition Programs; Certification Programs References: Dessau (1892); Churchill (1970); Ancient Worlds (2003); Holguín-Veras et al. (2005); Holguín-Veras et al. (2006a); Holguín-Veras et al. (2007); Holguín-Veras 2008; Holguín-Veras et al. (2008b); NICHES (2008); Silas and Holguín-Veras (2009); Brom et al. (2011); City of New York (2011); Federal Highway Administration (2012a); Hendy (2012); Silas et al. (2012); Holguín-Veras et al. (2017d) Exhibit 94. Initiative T46: Voluntary off-hour delivery programs.

206 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Staggered Work-Hour Programs Description: These programs diminish truck demand during peak periods by distributing the receiving hours throughout the day. This initiative targets receivers as the key decision-makers and seeks to convince them to spread out the reception of deliveries. Targeted mode: Urban deliveries, LTGs Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Freight Demand Management: Freight Demand Primary objective: Improve delivery efficiency Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Staggered work-hour programs involve the engagement and collaboration of multiple stakeholders. Business support is key to accomplishing the main goal of smoothing con- gestion during peak hours. Advantages: • Reduces congestion • Enhances environmental sustainability - Reduces noise emissions • Increases efficiency • Improves reliability • Has low to moderate implementation costs Disadvantages: • Requires very high or high coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions - May require the inclusion of incentives to convince businesses to participate Typical example: • The initiative has not been tested or implemented in any projects. Related alternatives: Peak-Hour Clearways; Daytime Delivery Restrictions; Time-Slotting of Pickups and Deliv- eries at LTGs; Pickups and Deliveries to Alternate Locations References: O’Malley and Selinger (1973); Maric (1978) Exhibit 95. Initiative T47: Staggered work-hour programs.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 207   Receiver-Led Delivery Consolidation Programs Description: These efforts are initiated by receivers or shippers to consolidate their deliveries. Delivery consoli- dation or delivery bundling programs often take place at one of the shippers’ facilities rather than at a facility provided by the public sector (as opposed to a UCC). This initiative aims to increase the productivity and cost- efficiency of deliveries. Given that its successful implementation requires the commitment of all the agents in- volved, it is more effective when suppliers for the same receiver are located near each other. Targeted mode: LTGs Geographic scope: Area Type of initiative: Freight Demand Management: Freight Demand Primary objective: Improve load factors Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The planning process should involve extensive stakeholder engagement. Business support is the cornerstone for the implementation of this policy, and complementary strate- gies (e.g., additional parking spaces) can also catalyze implementation. Advantages: • Improves load factors • Reduces congestion • Reduces VMT • Enhances environmental sustainability • Has low to moderate implementation costs Disadvantages: • Has low probability for unintended conse- quences: - May increase operational costs • Requires high or moderate coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions • Lacks a firm financial base Examples: • Tenjin, a central business district in Fukuoka, Japan (Nemoto 1997) • Delivery and Servicing Plans, London, England (Transport for London 2013a) Source: (Transport for London 2013a) Related alternatives: Recognition Programs; Pickups and Deliveries to Alternate Locations; Mode Shift Pro- grams References: Nemoto (1997); Transport for London (2013a) Exhibit 96. Initiative T48: Receiver-led delivery consolidation programs.

208 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Mode Shift Programs Description: This initiative involves a shift of cargo flows from road to intermodal transport, using a combination of road and short sea shipping, inland waterways, rail, or tricycles. Targeted mode: Urban deliveries Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Freight Demand Management: Freight Demand Primary objective: Reduce congestion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: Mode shift programs require the management and facilitation of information access and exchange among large, small, public, and private stakeholders across all business sectors and transport modes. Public-sector capital investments are required to provide sufficient facilities to support flexible multimodal transport. Depending of the scope of the program, the implementation cost could be moderate to high. Advantages: • Enhances energy savings • Reduces congestion • Reduces fuel consumption • Enhances environmental sustainability • Enhances safety Disadvantages: • Has low probability for unintended consequences: - May increase operational costs • Requires specific city and regional conditions - Requires integration of freight deliveries with current transportation system - Is only feasible where additional modes are present • Requires very high or high coordination among multiple stakeholders and jurisdictions - Requires incentives to foster a mode shift Examples: • B-Line Sustainable Urban Delivery, Portland, OR • Freight-Tricycle Operations in NYC, NY (Kamga and Conway 2012) • “Cargo cycles”—electrically powered tricycles with a container implemented by La Petite Reine in Paris, France (TURBLOG 2009; C-LIEGE 2010) • “MOVEBYBiKE” in Göteborg, Sweden • Urban rail used by Monoprix in Paris, France, to distribute their goods to the stores (C-LIEGE 2010) • Public transit used to move cargo: Greyhound Courier Express, Canada and United States; Matkahuolto, Finland; ic:kurier, Germany; A Way Express, Canada; Dabbawalas, India; CarGo Tram, Germany; Car- gotram, Switzerland; Guterbim, Austria; Tramfret, Paris (Vert chez vous 2014), France; City Cargo, Neth- erlands; Garbage Subways, United States; San Diego Imperial Valley Railroad, United States (Cochrane 2012) Source: (Kamga and Conway 2012) Related alternatives: Vehicle Size and Weight Restrictions; Urban Consolidation Centers; Receiver-Led Deliv- ery Consolidation Programs References: MOSES (2001); C-LIEGE (2010); SUGAR (2011); Cochrane (2012); Kamga and Conway (2012) Exhibit 97. Initiative T49: Mode shift programs.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 209   9.8 Stakeholder Engagement Increasing the understanding of freight issues among the public sector and agency leadership, and outreach to the private sector, are the critical defining tenets of effective stakeholder engage- ment. The public sector cannot address freight issues without understanding the underlying phenomena involved. Often, policy decisions relating to zoning, urban design concepts, parking regulations, and restrictions on truck routes can result in unintended problems (Jones et al. 2009). Effective engagement of the private sector requires creating mechanisms to discuss freight issues with the private sector and with communities to identify potential solutions, establish the roles of the various stakeholders, and secure commitments to a strategy of improvements. The reader is referred to A Guidebook for Engaging the Private Sector in Freight Transportation Planning (Wilbur Smith Associates and S.R. Kale Consulting 2009) for further reading about mechanisms for engaging the private sector in freight transportation planning. Multiple ways are available to accomplish these goals; the initiatives listed in this section offer a useful starting point (Holguín-Veras et al. 2013b). Stakeholder engagement land-use initiatives are found in Chapter 7. 9.8.1 Education Initiative T50: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs (Joint) The main objective of this initiative is to make sure that elected officials are fully aware of the importance of achieving FELUs for their communities. Inefficient freight land uses are bound to have major impacts on the entire metropolitan area. Achieving FELUs, in the manner out- lined in this Guide, benefits all. A critical component of this educational effort is an emphasis on the minimization of the externalities produced by freight facilities that impact local communi- ties; addressing these externalities will help remove community opposition to FELU initiatives. Exhibit 98 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T50. Initiative T51: Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles (Joint) An effective educational effort is necessary for this Guide to have an impact on land-use plan- ning practice. The effort should provide public- and private-sector practitioners with actionable knowledge about FELU goals and objectives; principles; how to develop a FELU program; how to use the decision-support tools to gain insight into their local conditions; and information about the wide range of land-use and transportation initiatives that could be used to foster FELUs. Success- fully conducting this educational program will require the use of technical webinars, workshops and other training mechanisms. Exhibit 99 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T51. Initiative T52: Foster an Industry-Led Best Practices Dissemination Program These initiatives could play a key role in sensitizing and teaching private-sector companies how to conduct their activities in ways that mitigate the negative impacts produced. They pro- vide a solid foundation for private-sector engagement, which can be modified and improved as demanded by circumstances. Adapting the governance structure of such dissemination programs to local conditions is fundamental to the success of improving urban freight in metropolitan areas. Exhibit 100 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T52. 9.8.2 Partnership Initiative T53: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies Having a designated freight person in place will likely significantly impact outreach efforts because, in time, this individual will become the focal point of communications between

210 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools the public and private sectors. In addition to training in transportation planning, this person should have a basic background in urban design concepts, logistics, and communication skills. As is often done for other focal positions, establishing procedures to identify and prepare a successor should the designated freight person leave the agency can help ensure that institu- tional history and connections are not lost in the transition. Exhibit 101 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T53. Initiative T54: Create a Freight Advisory Committee The freight advisory committee (FAC) will ideally become the forum for discussion of freight issues, where critical input is provided and received. As trust is developed, the relationship between the public and private sectors will improve, and this will facilitate implementation of novel solutions. It is good practice to complement FAC input with targeted outreach efforts to ensure that the public sector receives feedback from all segments of the industry. Exhibit 102 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T54. Initiative T55: Create a Freight Quality Partnership A freight quality partnership (FQP) creates an environment that fosters formal working relationships between private-sector and public-sector groups with the specific intent of imple- menting practices that ameliorate the negative impacts of freight activity (Department for Transport 2010a). The earliest use of the term is from work in the UK by the Freight Transport Association in 1996. Public-private partnerships to tackle freight problems have been growing in recent years, and there are now some very good examples in Europe, North and South America, and Japan. The development of FQPs has been most pronounced in Europe. The Central London Freight Quality Partnership provides such an example, where the local governments in Central London partnered with local businesses and the freight industry to discuss projects and exchange information; this group meets four times per year plus additional meetings to discuss special issues. According to the participants, the most important outputs from the meetings have been specific projects, such as: a loading and unloading code of practice, reduction in penalty charges for loading offenses, and an electric vehicle charging point initiative (Lindholm and Browne 2013). Exhibit 103 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T55. Initiative T56: Create a Technical Advisory Committee A technical advisory committee (TAC) is a forum at which the public-sector staff at the various agencies with jurisdiction on subjects that impact freight activity meet to discuss freight policy. Having such a forum is important to ensure coherent public-private sector coordination. Exhibit 104 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T56. Initiative T57: Foster Public-Private Collaboration (Joint) Public-private collaboration efforts seek to change the nature of the relations between public and private sectors, creating a formal environment to foster collaborations. This is important because the vast majority of land-use issues cannot be solved by the unilateral action of either the public or the private sector. In this context, public-private collaboration may be the only option. These collaboration efforts create synergies that could not be achieved without the part- nership. One of the common schemes relates to the public sector leading a land development project, in which the private sector participates by providing financial or managerial support. These partnerships must be aligned with FELU and freight plans, and must take into account the community’s perspectives and the potential for unintended consequences. For instance, a public-private-sector partnership between the Pennsylvania DOT and the private sector, including Fedex Ground, built an industrial zone which impacted the nearby communities; the complaints were taken to court, where the case stands currently (Lehigh Valley Planning Commission 2020). Exhibit 105 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T57.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 211   Initiative T58: Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees (Joint) Joint freight land-use and transportation committees present an ideal opportunity for land- use and freight stakeholders to discuss critical matters of interest. As interactions in the joint committees strengthen the relationships between the stakeholders, collaboration and engage- ment will lead toward implementation of novel solutions that foresee and tackle potential unintended consequences. It is key that the joint land-use and freight committees are composed of planners, representatives from the private sector, and the community to ensure that the forum receives feedback from all stakeholder groups. Exhibit 106 summarizes essential characteris- tics of Initiative T58. Initiative T59: Create and Engage Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums (Joint) Regional land-use and freight forums offer a formal space for stakeholders to discuss relevant issues at the regional level. This broader perspective is important to ensure that all relevant decision-makers understand the importance of FELU and the impact of not having FELUs. These forums are particularly important in regions where multiple land-use agencies operate because this regional view will help define procedures to mitigate negative impacts on any juris- diction that could block the progress of FELU projects. Exhibit 107 summarizes essential char- acteristics of Initiative T59. Initiative T60: Implement Community Engagement Programs (Joint) Community engagement programs provide a framework to establish channels of communi- cation between public agencies and the community. These programs enable the public sector to communicate and keep the community up to date on the freight and land-use planning pro- cesses. At the same time, the community finds a place in which to voice their opinions and become involved with the planning processes. As the community gets more involved with the decision-making process, it will promote engagement on all sides. Exhibit 108 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T60. Initiative T61: Foster Business Improvement Districts (Joint) BIDs align the private-sector stakeholders in a relatively small geographic area toward improving the business environment of the district. These coalitions often organize themselves to improve the conditions of the infrastructure and provide services to both the private sector and the community beyond what is available from the public sector. While these initiatives require a high level of coordination between relevant stakeholders, experience has shown that these coalitions are effective in improving communities, and could be leveraged to foster FELU and be a catalyst for other FELU-related initiatives. Exhibit  109 summarizes essential characteristics of Initiative T61.

212 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs Description: Elected officials are typically not trained in freight and land use, as such they may not be aware of the impact of land-use planning on freight activities. This initiative aims to create awareness among elected officials about FELU practices and their potential benefits, and the role that they can play in fostering FELU practices. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Education Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: This initiative requires coordination among the multiple stakeholders involved. It can be implemented in a short time, but the effort must be sustained over time to keep seeing the benefits. Stakeholders involved: Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works Departments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases control for unintended consequences • Increases stakeholder engagement Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Needs continuous effort to reach out and educate newly elected officials after each election Examples: • Land Use Academy of Utah. This online resource is used to train and educate officials in land issues and best planning practices (Utah League of Cities and Towns 2020). Source: (Envision Utah 2016) • South Carolina Planning Education Advisory Committee. Columbia, SC. This is an annual continuing education requirement for planning and zoning officials, sponsored by the Advisory Committee (Municipal Association of South Carolina 2020). • Understanding the Basics of Land Use and Planning Series. California. This series provides resources to local offi- cials in the planning processes (Institute for Local Government 2015). • Land Use Training and Education Program. Minnesota. Courses and workshops provide officials with general and specific knowledge on equitable and sustainable land use (GTS Educational Events 2020). Related land-use initiatives: Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles; Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee References: Steele et al. (2011); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015); Institute for Local Government (2015); Envision Utah (2016); GTS Educational Events (2020); Municipal Association of South Carolina (2020); Utah League of Cities and Towns (2020) Exhibit 98. Initiative T50: Educate elected officials on the importance of FELUs.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 213   Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles Description: Land-use practitioners and policymakers should be aware of the FELU principles that support their deci- sion-making processes. Education and training programs could be designed to equip these practitioners regarding FELU principles, and how to implement and sustain them over time, for the reduction of systematic inefficiencies. This initi- ative becomes more critical as land-use planning educational programs do not tend to offer content related to freight transportation planning. While some dissemination efforts may take place on a case-by-case basis, it is wise to engage national and regional associations such as the APA, professional associations, and academia to help educate larger audiences. It is an ongoing process and applicable to both novice and experienced practitioners. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Education Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for very high coordination among all stakeholders involved. It can be imple- mented in a short time, but the effort must be sustained over time to keep perceiving the benefits. The implementation costs relate to promoting events, workshops, or lectures targeted to practitioners and policymakers. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Carriers, Developers, DOTs, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Requires sustained effort over time to continue edu- cating future generations of practitioners Examples: • Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission’s Freight Planning Program. Philadelphia, PA. This pro- gram consists of technical endeavors and committee work with the objective of educating practitioners about incorporating freight into the transportation planning process (Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission 2019). • Trucking tells its story at the White House. Washing- ton, DC. ATA talks about the trucking industry to the Executive Branch (American Trucking Associations 2017). • Trucking Association of New York (TANY) in the community. TANY promotes education, safety, and outreach programs for those inside and outside the industry (NY Trucks 2020). Related land-use initiatives: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees; Implement Community Engagement Programs Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee; Foster an Industry-Led Best Practices Dissemination Program; Create a Freight Quality Partnership References: Steele et al. (2011); Holguín-Veras et al. (2015); American Trucking Associations (2017); Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission (2019); NY Trucks (2020) Source: (American Trucking Associations 2017) Exhibit 99. Initiative T51: Educate practitioners on FELU principles.

214 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Foster an Industry-Led Best Practices Dissemination Program Description: This initiative provides a solid foundation for private-sector engagement in sensitizing and teaching them how to conduct their activities in ways that mitigate the negative impacts produced. These best practices can be modified and improved as demanded by circumstances. Targeted mode: All modes Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Stakeholder engagement: foster an industry-led best practices dissemination program Primary objective: Stakeholder Engagement: Educa- tion Expected costs and level of effort to implement: This initiative requires coordination among the multiple stake- holders involved. Advantages: • Facilitates the implementation of freight initia- tives at all levels • Provides support to private-sector companies in how to minimize the negative freight externalities • Improves outreach efforts • Reduces probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires high coordination among different stakeholders • Requires adapting the governance structure to local conditions Examples: • Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals Roundtables (UK Freight Transport Association) • UK Freight Transport Association Logistics Carbon Reduction Scheme (UK Freight Transport Associa- tion) • UK Freight Transport Association Van Excellence Programme (http://www.vanexcellence.co.uk/about/) Source: (UK Freight Transport Association) References: Freight Transport Association (2013); Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (2014) Exhibit 100. Initiative T52: Foster an industry-led best practices dissemination program.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 215   Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies Description: Designating a freight person at key agencies facilitates outreach efforts because, in time, this indi- vidual becomes the focal point of communications between the public and private sectors. In addition to training in transportation planning, the designated person should have a basic background in urban design concepts, logistics, and communication skills. As for any focal position, succession planning is advisable. Targeted mode: All modes Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Stakeholder engagement: designate a freight person at key agencies Primary objective: Stakeholder Engagement: Partner- ship Expected costs and level of effort to implement: The main cost of this initiative is related to hiring an analyst with a background in freight transportation, or training a member of the staff in urban design concepts and logistics. Advantages: • Facilitates the implementation of freight initia- tives • Creates communication channels between differ- ent stakeholders • Improves outreach efforts • Reduces probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires high coordination among different stakeholders Examples: • Office of Freight Mobility at the NYC DOT, NY • Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission, Philadelphia, PA • City of Seattle Department of Transportation, Policy and Planning Division, Seattle, WA • Mid-Ohio Regional Planning Commission, Columbus, OH • Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning, Chicago, IL References: Holguín-Veras et al. (2013b) Exhibit 101. Initiative T53: Designate a freight person at key agencies.

216 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Create a Freight Advisory Committee Description: A FAC is composed of a group of different freight stakeholders and serves as a forum in which novel solutions for urban freight problems are discussed. It is a good practice to complement the FAC input with targeted outreach efforts to receive feedback from all segments of the industry. Targeted mode: All modes Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Stakeholder engagement: create a FAC Primary objective: Stakeholder Engagement: Partner- ship Expected costs and level of effort to implement: This initiative requires coordination among the multiple stake- holders involved. Advantages: • Facilitates the implementation of freight initia- tives • Creates communication channels between differ- ent stakeholders • Improves outreach efforts • Reduces probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires high coordination among different stakeholders Examples: • National Freight Advisory Committee, Washington, DC (for the entire country) • FAC of the Capital District Transportation Committee, Albany, NY • Columbus Region Logistics Council, Columbus, OH • North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington, TX • NYC DOT Industry Advisory Group, NYC, NY • Seattle Freight Mobility Advisory Board, Seattle, WA Source: (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute – CITE) References: Holguín-Veras et al. (2013b); Columbus Chamber of Commerce (2014); North Central Texas Council of Governments (2014) Exhibit 102. Initiative T54: Create a freight advisory committee.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 217   Create a Freight Quality Partnership Description: A FQP is a voluntary partnership between private- and public-sector groups to foster the implemen- tation of practices that ameliorate the negative impacts of freight activity. Partnerships between the public and private sectors to tackle freight problems have been growing in recent years, and there are now some very good examples in Europe, North and South America, and Japan. Targeted mode: All modes Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Stakeholder engagement: create a FQP Primary objective: Stakeholder Engagement: Partner- ship Expected costs and level of effort to implement: This initiative requires coordination among the multiple stake- holders involved. Advantages: • Creates formal working environments between private- and public-sector groups • Facilitates the implementation of freight initia- tives • Creates communication channels between differ- ent stakeholders • Improves outreach efforts Disadvantages: • Requires high coordination among different stakeholders Examples: • The Central London Freight Quality Partnership, London, England (Lindholm and Browne 2013) • Local freight network, Göteborg, Sweden (Lindholm and Browne 2013) Source: (http://www.dft.gov.uk/rmd/project.asp?intProjectID=10987) References: Department for Transport (2010a); Lindholm and Browne (2013) Exhibit 103. Initiative T55: Create a freight quality partnership.

218 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Create a Technical Advisory Committee Description: A TAC is a forum in which the public-sector staff at the various agencies with jurisdiction on sub- jects that impact freight activity meet to discuss freight policy. This is important in metropolitan areas, where the need for coherent public-sector coordination is the highest. Targeted mode: All modes Geographic scope: City, area Type of initiative: Stakeholder engagement: create a TAC Primary objective: Stakeholder Engagement: Partner- ship Expected costs and level of effort to implement: This initiative requires coordination among the multiple stake- holders involved. Advantages: • Facilitates the implementation of freight initia- tives at all levels • Provides technical support for initiatives imple- mentation • Facilitates the coherent public-sector coordination in complex metropolitan areas • Improves outreach efforts • Reduces probability of unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Requires high coordination among different stakeholders • There may be differences in points of view among jurisdictions Examples: • Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG) • Hampton Roads Transportation Planning Organization, Freight Transportation Advisory Committee (FTAC) References: Hampton Roads Transportation Planning Organization (2014); Southern California Association of Governments (2014) Exhibit 104. Initiative T56: Create a technical advisory committee.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 219   Foster Public-Private Collaboration Description: This voluntary partnership between the private and public sectors fosters the implementation of land- use practices that improve the negative impacts of freight activity. Partnerships can include private technical ser- vices or the participation of the private sector in the planning process. By more thoroughly considering the private sector’s insights into the supply chain and the movement of freight, the public sector can implement more freight- efficient decisions and land-use plans. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for coordination of multiple stakeholders and collaboration between the private and public sector. The term for implementation usually is short term. Stakeholders involved: Carriers, Producers, Receivers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Com- mission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: Less than a year, 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Requires role specialization by using the experience of each stakeholder to focus on what they do best • Obtains synergies that would not occur without the partnership • Improves efficiency of the system • Obtains more holistic solutions • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • High need of collaboration and coordination • Potential reluctance of the public sector toward the involvement of the private sector • Unintended consequences: - Bias (conscious or unconscious) of private sec- tor toward their benefit, regardless of the rest of the system Examples: • The Brainerd Lakes Area Welcome Center, Minnesota. This was built through a partnership in which the pub- lic sector shared the development costs of truck parking facilities, and the private sector constructed the amen- ities on designated truck stops (I-95 Corridor Coalition 2019). • Lehigh Valley Planning Commission. The private sector shared costs to build an interchange along Route 33, for logistics operations between several businesses (Lehigh Valley Planning Commission 2020). • Partnership between the Pennsylvania DOT, Lehigh Airport Authority, and Fedex Ground. Costs were shared for road improvements connecting the Fedex Ground’s largest facility in the United States located around the airport in an industrial zone, in Lehigh Valley (Lehigh Valley Planning Commission 2020). • Land development through Public-Private Partnership-based planning, surveying and infrastructure provision: Cases in Tanzania, Britain, Europe, Africa (Kasala and Burra 2016). • Private-sector and multi-industry involvement in the land-use planning process (Inquirer Business 2013). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Provide Performance-Based Incen- tives; Foster Business Improvement Districts; Create and Engage Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums Complementary transportation initiatives: Create a Freight Quality Partnership; Create a Freight Advisory Com- mittee References: Payne (1996); Corrigan et al. (2005); Levainen and Korthals (2005); Inquirer Business (2013); Kasala and Burra (2016); World Bank Blogs (2017); Lehigh Valley Planning Commission (2020) Exhibit 105. Initiative T57: Foster public-private collaboration.

220 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Create and Engage Joint Freight Land-Use and Transportation Committees Description: Joint committees composed of land-use and freight planners provide a platform to encourage discussions and collaboration among different stakeholders. These committees provide feedback on the freight issues that arise in the land-use planning agenda, together with potential land-use plans that may impact freight activities. This initiative encourages the committee’s participants to work jointly on master plans for land-use development, or redevelopment, in which the collaboration would yield more holistic planning processes. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need of coordination among stakeholders. Additional coordination and stakeholder engagement required for continuous participation in the joint committees Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases consideration of freight transportation in land-use planning • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Requires sustained effort over time to ensure partici- pation of stakeholders in the committees • Has potential points of conflicts of interest between stakeholders regarding land use Examples: • Committee on Land Use of New York City, NY (New York City Council 2019a) • Land Use and Transportation Committee (LUTC), San Francisco, CA (City and County of San Francisco 2020) • Chicago Metropolitan Agency Planning Land Use Committee, Chicago, IL (Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning 2020) • SE Uplift LUTC to discuss land-use and transportations matters, Portland, OR (SE Uplift 2020) Source: (SE Uplift 2020) Related land-use initiatives: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Educate Practitioners on FELU Principles; Foster Public-Private Collaboration Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Committee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee References: New York City Council (2019b, 2019a); City and County of San Francisco (2020); Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning (2020); SE Uplift (2020) Exhibit 106. Initiative T58: Create and engage joint freight land-use and transportation committees.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 221   Create and Engage Regional Land-Use and Freight Forums Description: Multi-jurisdictional cooperation at a regional level can be encouraged through involvement in regular forums that discuss freight and land-use decisions. Overall, this initiative promotes more intensive communication among stakehold- ers at a regional level. Further, it allows inclusion of higher-level perspectives within more local decision processes, together with the framing of local decision-making processes within regional plans. This initiative could leverage the MPOs FACs because they are implemented in most of the MPOs, and land-use practitioners may join these already arranged meetings. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for very high coordination among stakeholders related to the promotion of the forum. Additional coordination and stakeholder engagement required for continuous participation Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Producers, Receivers, Carriers, Developers, Regional Planning Agencies, Plan- ning Commission, Public Works Departments Time to fruition: 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Facilitates implementation of freight initiatives • Creates or improves communication channels among stakeholders • Increases coordination at a regional level • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • Requires sustained effort over time to ensure participation of stakeholders in the forum Examples: • National Capital Region Freight Forum, Washington, DC. A forum focused on freight transportation in three areas: Downtown Frederick MD; Downtown Washington, DC; and Rosslyn-Ballston Corridor, Arlington, VA (Transportation Planning Board 2018). Source: (Transportation Planning Board 2018) • Multi-State Freight Working Group hosted by Lehigh Valley Planning Commission, discussing among other items, both land-use and transportation plans for Pennsylvania. Other states participating in the forum were New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2020b). Related land-use initiatives: Educate Elected Officials on the Importance of FELUs; Educate Practitioners on FELU Prin- ciples; Foster Public-Private Collaboration; Implement Community Engagement Programs Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies; Create a Freight Advisory Com- mittee; Create a Technical Advisory Committee; Foster an Industry-Led Best Practice Dissemination Program References: Steele et al. (2011); Transportation Planning Board (2018); London Freight Quality Partnerships (2020); New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (2020b) Exhibit 107. Initiative T59: Create and engage regional land-use and freight forums.

222 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Implement Community Engagement Programs Description: Engaging community is essential for the success of FELU programs because both freight and land-use possess conflicts to the community. Allowing for the participation of community groups in the decision-making of FELU initiatives guarantees that their implementation will meet societal needs. Such programs may include but are not limited to involvement of the community during forums or committees that discuss planning processes, development of formal tools for people to give feedback to the public and private sector regarding their actions and activities, and openly and timely informing the community about all projects to be implemented and in progress. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for collaboration between the public sector and the community. The imple- mentation may be in the short term. It will depend of the level of participation of the community: higher participation (e.g., community voting) might require more complex programs than lesser participation (e.g., community’s opinion). Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Regional Planning Agencies, Planning Commission, Public Works De- partments, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Less than a year, 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Increases meaningful involvement of community • Increases community engagement and access to infor- mation and decision-making • Increases equitability and consensus • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need for collaboration and coordination • May face reluctance of the public sector toward the involvement of the community Examples: • Washington State Department of Transportation Community Engagement Plan 2016. Provides a framework for community engagement in planning, delivery, maintenance, and operations (Washington State Department of Transportation 2016). • Melbourne implemented an online platform for community engagement in planning and transportation for the re- gional removal of level crossings. The online platform is adjustable to different needs, and it aims to encourage inputs from the public on planning projects, city development, and transportation expansions (Bang the Table 2019). • MetroQuest platform. Private company platform to provide governments, transportation agencies, and firms with a visual tool for public engagement in planning processes. The platform involves any type of audience, with education alternatives as well as a collection of inputs (MetroQuest 2019). • Community planning workshop led by NYMTC for the Route 59 Area Transportation & Land Use Study (New York Metropolitan Transportation Council 2020a) Related land-use initiatives: Foster Context-Sensitive Planning and Design; Form-Based Zoning to Foster FELU; Foster Public-Private Collaboration; Foster Business Improvement Districts Complementary transportation initiatives: Designate a Freight Person at Key Agencies References: Washington State Department of Transportation (2016); Bang the Table (2019); MetroQuest (2019); Project Connect (2019); New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (2020a) Source: (MetroQuest 2019) Exhibit 108. Initiative T60: Implement community engagement programs.

Overview of Transportation Initiatives 223   Foster Business Improvement Districts Description: Traditionally, BIDs are a group of local businesses and private property owners that get together for the purpose of incentivizing and improving the businesses of the district. BIDs deliver services to the community that usually go beyond the capabilities of what the public sector provides. The initiative of fostering BIDs aims to incentiv- ize the private sector to collaborate and create BIDs, and to promote existing ones within the community. This initiative will allow higher participation of the private sector in more public and community-oriented initiatives. Also, BIDs would be beneficial for the public sector because they account for resources and experience that support public-sector interests. Geographic scope: City/MSA, Area Initiative group: Stakeholder Engagement: Partnership Problem source: Lack of awareness on FELU practices Expected costs and level of effort: Need for coordination among the private-sector stakeholders. The period for im- plementation may be short to medium term, depending on BID size and complexity. Stakeholders involved: Local Communities, Receivers, Legislative Branch Time to fruition: Less than a year, 1 to 5 years Advantages: • Promotes stakeholder engagement • Creates or improves communication channels among the private sector, with the rest of stakeholders • Requires role specialization by using the experience of each stakeholder to focus on what they do best • Obtains synergies that would not occur without col- laboration • Increases equitability and consensus • Increases control for unintended consequences Disadvantages: • Has a high need of collaboration and coordination • May face reluctance of the public sector toward ac- cepting involvement of the private sector • Requires sustained effort over time to ensure sustaina- bility of the BIDs Examples: • NYC Department of Small Business Services (SBS). This agency announces the annual report of impacts of BIDs in the NYC, highlighting their hard work and great achievements toward city development and community improvements. The SBS helps foster the economic potential of New York businesses, through promoting their BIDs (NYC Department of Small Business Services 2019). Related land-use initiatives: Foster Public-Private Collaboration; Implement Community Engagement Programs Complementary transportation initiatives: Parking and Loading Areas Management; Freight Demand Management; Last-Mile Delivery Practices References: NYC Department of Small Business Services (2019) Exhibit 109. Initiative T61: Foster business improvement districts.