Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools (2022)

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D-1   Supply chains link the places where goods are produced to the places where they are con­ sumed. In modern and complex economies, supply chains can have numerous intermediary points where freight is processed and transferred between vehicles and modes. It is important to understand supply chains, in particular, the role of facilities and the relationship between facilities to better utilize FELU practices and solutions. This section describes supply chains from the perspective of freight facilities and identifies some general characteristics of key supply chains within our economy. The analysis also identifies stakeholders that could be targeted to achieve FELU goals in the most effective manner. Thirteen different supply chains were selected. They are (1) Gasoline and Petroleum Fuels; (2) Aggregate­ based Construction Materials; (3) Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology; (4) Retail Drug Store; (5) Hospital; (6) Soft Drink Beverage; (7) Urban Wholesale Food; (8) Supermarket; (9) Food Services; (10) Big­Box Retailers; (11) Retail Apparel; (12) Waste Management; and (13) Parcel Delivery. The first twelve supply chains were adapted from NCFRP Report 14 (Rhodes et al. 2012), which provides an overview of the urban goods movement. In addition, the Parcel Delivery Service supply chain was incorporated into the analysis due to its growing importance related to the movement of parcels in urban and metropolitan areas. D.1 Gasoline and Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain Gasoline and petroleum operations tend to extend globally at multiple stages of the supply chain. Crude oil may be imported to be refined to gasoline and petroleum fuel for domestic consumption. Alternatively, gasoline and petroleum fuel may be imported for domestic con­ sumption. On the other hand, refined gasoline and petroleum fuel may be exported for overseas consumption. As gasoline and petroleum fuel are highly sought­after commodities internationally, there are many permutations of the supply chain processes and locations of the facilities on a global scale. During the production stage, the refinery receives crude oil from domestic and off­shore oil wells via pipelines and ships (Rhodes et al. 2012). In 2016, the United States imported crude oil and other petroleum­related products from 70 countries, with the top three countries being Canada, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela (U.S. Energy Information Administration 2018). Domestic oil wells can be found throughout the country, but most refinery activities take place around New Orleans and Houston, along the Gulf Coast. After refining the crude oil to gasoline and petroleum fuel, the product will be sent to a tank farm for storage. Tank farms are typically located at pipeline termini, or near a waterside terminal to facilitate transportation. At this stage, tank farms will receive ethanol and fuel additives to blend with gasoline and petroleum fuel. The ethanol plants in the United States are largely A P P E N D I X D Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains

D-2 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools located in the Midwest near agricultural regions, however the East and West Coasts consume the largest amount of gasoline. e ethanol will be delivered to the tank farms via rail or truck (U.S. Department of Energy 2018). e nal blended product will be shipped to the end receiver, such as a gas station, via truck (see Figure D-1). Since gasoline and petroleum fuel are inherently hazardous commodities, facilities are typi- cally located far from urban areas with gas stations being an exception. Gas stations must be properly designed to minimize any risk arising from the handling and storing of the hazardous commodity. ere is a relatively large number of oil wells and end receivers (e.g., gas stations, ports, and airports) compared with the number of producers. When conducting stakeholder outreach to foster FELU, it may be easier to reach out to the producers. D.2 Aggregate-based Construction Material Supply Chain Aggregate-based construction material is used when constructing infrastructure, buildings, roads, and during renovation work. Every state in the country is a producer of some form of construction aggregate, which includes limestone, crushed rocks, gravel, and sand. erefore, these raw materials are typically sourced domestically from many suppliers. ese raw materials are not put together in a single location, but introduced to the supply chain at dierent stages (see Figure D-2). e initial stages of the supply chain include the production of cement and the mining of crushed stone, gravel, and sand. ere is a relatively small number of cement plants compared with companies mining limestone, crushed stone, gravel, and sand. Cement plants receive limestone and other raw materials from their local limestone quarries to produce powdered Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-1. Schematic of gasoline and petroleum fuel supply chain.

Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains D-3   cement. A cement plant is commonly found near a limestone quarry and, ideally, it should be located near a rail facility or port to facilitate transportation. e cement is then transported to a regional cement consolidation terminal via rail or barges. e regional cement consolidation terminal distributes the cement to various ready-mix concrete plants in the metropolitan region by truck. A typical metropolitan area has many ready-mix concrete plants to support construction projects throughout the region. At the plants, cement is mixed with aggregates that arrive via barges or trucks from gravel pits to form ready-mix concrete. Ready-mix concrete is a very perishable product; hence, the ready-mix concrete plant must be located within 1-hour travel time of a road construction site, and within 2 hours of a residential or commercial construction site. As urbanization is on the rise, many construction projects can be found within existing urban areas as opposed to development on greeneld sites. ere is a growing diculty in siting new facilities, as local regulations become more stringent and complex due to the externalities caused by ready-mix concrete plants. Because the plant is restricted by the life span of their product and the externalities produced, it may be worth- while to engage ready-mix concrete manufacturers to understand their limitations in the process and work with them in developing an appropriate FELU solution. D.3 Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Supply Chain e pharmaceutical and biotechnology supply chain is a complex process that involves multiple phases and processes (see Figure D-3). It starts with the manufacturing of active pharma- ceutical ingredients (APIs), which are the raw materials used to produce drug (medicinal) products. Aer APIs have been harvested and processed, they are stored in warehouses and delivered to production facilities only when required. ese APIs are commonly manufactured abroad and brought to the United States, although there are also some domestic producers. e next phase of the process is the production of specic drugs at manufacturing facilities, where Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-2. Schematic of aggregate-based construction material supply chain.

D-4 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools semi-nished products are stored in warehouses at these facilities. e nished products, which are the packaged drugs, will be distributed by wholesalers to hospitals, mass marketers, phar- macies, and to consumers directly via mail order. Pharmacy chains and mass markets receive products from wholesalers at their region’s distribution center. ey supply the products to individual stores and oer mail order servers to consumers (Rhodes et al. 2012). Transportation between facilities could either be performed by truck or airplane. Pharma- ceutical companies use air transportation expedited services to minimize the risk of potential product loss due to mishandling, delay, or extended exposure. is is a low-cost approach to protect their high-value product and the ow within the supply chain. Trucks are also used to deliver products between manufacturing facilities and from manufacturing facilities to the distribution center. In a typical metropolitan region, manufacturing facilities and distribution centers are in exurban regions, as shown in Figure D-3. A limited number of facilities support a relatively large number of end receivers such as hospitals, pharmacies, and direct end users, who are in the urban area. Exurban regions are chosen for manufacturing facilities and distribution centers due to the availability of adequate parking facilities, docking facilities, and areas for truck maneuvering. e pharmaceutical industry uses various biological and chemical agents in their manufac- turing processes and many of these materials may be inherently hazardous (Tait 1998). e substances that are contained within the product may also become harmful if the drug breaks down. Hence, it is important for temperature and humidity to be controlled at all times during the process, both for the storage and transportation, to slow the degradation of the product (Sumners 2016). Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-3. Schematic of pharmaceutical and biotechnology supply chain.

Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains D-5   D.4 Retail Drug Store Supply Chain e retail drug store supply chain is a process where the product is purchased from a hetero- geneous group of vendors, sent to the company’s regional distribution center, and then distributed to the specic retail stores served by the distribution center. is process involves the provision of goods from manufacturing facilities that act as suppliers, which are sent to the company’s warehouse or a third-party wholesaler that serves as a distributor, and nally are delivered to the pharmacies that are the end receivers. e vast majority of goods are supplied domestically from the vendor’s manufacturing facility or distribution center. e product may arrive at a port if purchased abroad. Regardless of the origin, most goods end up at a regional distribution center. Most goods travel 1 to 2 days by truck to the regional distribution centers and a minimal proportion of goods are shipped by rail intermodal. e deliveries to retail stores are usually handled by the business’ truck eet or by a third party. All products travel to a regional warehouse except for vendor-direct goods, like bread and milk, which are shipped directly from the manufacturing facilities. e rest of the products in the drug store (including pharmaceuticals), arrive in a single shipment, usually one delivery per week from the distribution center. e distribution centers each serve a set of retail stores located as far as several hundred miles away, and each truck typically makes three to four stops per trip. Distribution centers are typically located about 30 minutes away from the city center, and trucks depart in the early morning to avoid heavy rush hour trac (Rhodes et al. 2012). As observed in Figure D-4, the last echelon of the supply chain is visible within the metro- politan area. at is, a sparse number of regional and local distribution centers located in exurban areas serve many end retailers located within or surrounding the city center. Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-4. Schematic of retail drug store supply chain.

D-6 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools D.5 Hospital Supply Chain e hospital supply chain is a process that involves inbound supplies from many dierent vendors. Four principal channels are identied: general medical care supplies, pharmaceuticals, food, and miscellaneous (Rhodes et al. 2012). e stakeholders involved in the operation are the vendors that serve as suppliers, third-party providers that serve as distributors, and the hospitals that are the end receivers. All supplies are sent to the hospital by truck from facilities located 30 to 50 miles away. Some deliveries usually require the use of vans due to a smaller shipment size and, in other cases, special accommodation in their transportation (i.e., blood components from blood banks). e distributors receive and consolidate products, which arrive through trucks or sometimes by rail for high volume supplies, at their distribution centers,. ese products originate from vendor plants usually located in exurban regions and abroad. Deliveries are received daily at the hospital’s loading dock, consolidated on site, and stored or distributed by the hospital’s personnel. Depending on the size of the hospital, there will be one truck or multiple trucks arriving daily. e emergency, unique, or incidental supplies are not typically stocked by a distribution center and can be sent directly to the hospital by vendors or parcel carriers. Food products are supplied by multiple vendors, food service providers, and other distributors that consolidate at their regional distribution centers or manufacturing facility. A big portion of the miscellaneous products includes laundry, which is oen handled by a national service with a local facility that delivers fresh linens and collects soiled ones on a daily basis (Rhodes et al. 2012). As shown in Figure D-5, multiple suppliers’ facilities are usually located at the edge of the metropolitan area or even the regional area. e distributors are within the metropolitan area and located close to the city center. ere are also several local distribution centers for the immediate Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-5. Schematic of hospital supply chain.

Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains D-7   and critical products served to the hospital. e essential supplies are moved in daily on xed schedules, usually early in the morning to avoid trac. e hospitals are spread around the urban area, thus the distribution within the city center is likely to be done in smaller trucks and vans. D.6 Soft Drink Beverage Supply Chain Figure D-6 illustrates a typical so drink beverage supply chain. So drink beverage supply chains typically have a domestic operation. e operation is segregated by geographic region where a group of manufacturers and distributors work together to deliver the nal products to the end receivers. In the rst stage of the supply chain, the manufacturer receives raw water from the local municipality via pipeline, concentrate from its parent company via truck, and other raw materials, such as cans/plastic bottles, and sweetener that can be transported by truck or rail. Many manufacturing plants can either send products directly to the end receivers or to dedicated distribution centers via truck. e distribution center will then redistribute the products to the end receivers. ere is a relatively large number of end receivers (e.g., grocery stores, convenience stores, vending machines, and restaurants) in urban areas compared with the number of suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors. With the large number of end receivers coexisting in the urban area, consideration of their freight needs becomes a necessity. ese end receivers need suf- cient loading and unloading space for the delivery truck to park, and barrier-free facilities for hand cart deliveries (e.g., ramps, elevators) between the trucks and the end receivers. When conducting stakeholder outreach to foster FELU, it may be easier to reach out to the manu- facturers and distributors. Even though their number is small, the impact will be great as they serve many end receivers. Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-6. Schematic of soft drink beverage supply chain.

D-8 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools D.7 Urban Wholesale Food (Produce) Supply Chain e fresh fruits and vegetables for metropolitan regions are sourced from local agriculture, regional producers, and even international suppliers. e wide variety of produce from various sources and suppliers is consolidated in distribution centers and distributed to metropolitan regions. ere are two types of distribution centers: (1) public wholesale or terminal markets and (2) privately owned distribution centers. ese centers are the key node in the urban whole- sale food supply chain. Figure D-7 illustrates the schematic of a typical supply chain for a public urban wholesale produce market in the United States. Fresh produce from international sources may arrive by ship or airplane. Produce that is highly perishable or easily damaged, such as tomatoes from the Netherlands and blackberries from Chile, tends to be imported by airplane, while hardy produce, such as garlic from China and rice from ailand, tends to be imported by ship. Distant regional suppliers may transport by airplane if the produce is highly perishable. However, they may have the option of trans- porting the produce by rail or truck. e urban wholesale market receives produce from various sources and supplies it to grocers, restaurants, purveyors, jobbers, retail outlets, and institutions within the metropolitan region. Buyers from these establishments go to the wholesale market in the evening to purchase the produce required. e buyers may have the selected produce delivered immediately to their establishments or the wholesaler may deliver the produce the next morning. ese end receivers are typically located in the urban area. e urban wholesale market is a key node that connects the agriculture producing region to the urban consuming region. ere are many producers and consumers and relatively few Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-7. Schematic of urban wholesale food supply chain.

Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains D-9   wholesale markets. When conducting stakeholder outreach to reduce the number of trips made in the supply chain, wholesale markets may not be able to inuence decisions on the number of trips made to and from the market, although it may be easier to reach out to them because they are smaller in number. e end receivers, although large in number, have the power to decide when and how many trips are made. Fresh produce is time- and temperature-sensitive. Delays in shipping or storing the product at inadequate temperatures can aect the quality of the produce and its ability to be sold. Both the facility and the mode of transport must provide a controlled environment to ensure the freshness of the produce. e wholesale market must be adequately designed to facilitate move- ment in and out of the market. To improve the eciency of the supply chain, the delay between outbound movements from the wholesale market and the end receivers must be reduced. e end receivers should have adequate space for loading-unloading activities. D.8 Supermarket Supply Chain A supermarket functions like a distribution center. It receives a wide variety of products from dierent suppliers and sells or distributes them to the end users. Figure D-8 illustrates the sche- matic of a national grocery chain operating as both a retailer and a wholesaler that distributes products to independent retailers. e company receives a wide variety of goods from various suppliers at their distribution center, which will then be distributed to the company’s local dis- tribution centers throughout the region. e local distribution center will deliver goods to their own local retail stores and some independent retail stores. Like the urban wholesale produce market, buyers from the independent stores may sometimes organize their own pickup from the local distribution center. Local stores may also receive products from local and regional suppliers directly. Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-8. Schematic of supermarket supply chain.

D-10 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools D.9 Big-Box Retailer Supply Chain Figure D-9 illustrates the supply chain schematic for a chain big-box retailer. Big-box stores sell a diverse selection of products that may be sourced domestically or internationally. Imported products tend to arrive by ship. Once products reach the port of call, they may be transferred to truck or rail to be shipped to an international distribution center or directly to the retailer’s regional distribution center. Big-box retailers do not manufacture or process any products. eir function is similar to a distributor, using their storefront to distribute products to end users. Although they sell a wide variety of products, the retail stores do not oen receive products directly from suppliers. Retailers use regional distribution centers to consolidate products from various domestic and international suppliers and stage the last-mile delivery according to the retail store’s demand. However, some suppliers prefer to conduct the last-mile delivery themselves. ere is a relatively large number of suppliers compared with the number of big-box retailers. Because the retailer has control and an overview of the entire supply chain, it may be easier to reach out to them during stakeholder engagement for FELUs. D.10 Retail Apparel Supply Chain e retail apparel industry in the United States is dominated by very large apparel companies. ese companies own specialty brands, which may have chain stores throughout the country. Brick-and-mortar stores are not the only channel through which consumers can purchase products, because products can also be purchased from catalogs or online. Figure D-10 illus- trates the typical supply chain of a large apparel company. Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-9. Schematic of big-box retailer supply chain.

Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains D-11   Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-10. Schematic of retail apparel supply chain. Apparel sold in the United States is commonly manufactured overseas. Products are sent into the country by airplane or ship. On arrival, products are sent to container freight stations to clear customs, break bulk, and be sorted. Sorted products are delivered to the regional dis- tribution center by truck. From regional distribution centers, the apparel is delivered to retail stores or directly to the consumer, if products are purchased through a catalog or online. ere is a relatively large number of end receivers located in urban areas. Although they have the power to determine shipment size and the frequency of delivery, it may be dicult to reach out to a signicant number of end receivers to inuence freight activities. Since the retail apparel industry is dominated by a relatively small number of apparel companies, they will be able to inuence a large portion of the freight activities within this supply chain. D.11 Waste Management Supply Chain Waste and recyclables are generated from the end user of goods. Unlike the typical supply chain where goods are distributed from a centralized location to the surrounding receivers, waste and recyclables are collected from the region’s end users and delivered to a central collec- tion facility. Waste and recyclables are not only generated at the end of the supply chain, but at every stage of the chain. Hence, suppliers of waste include but are not limited to manufacturers, distributors, retailers, houses, and oces. Waste is typically collected from end receivers via trucks and transferred to the landll site, waste-to-energy facility, or recycling facility (see Figure D-11). If waste processing facilities are located far from the region, waste will be consolidated at a transfer facility and re-loaded onto container trucks, trains, or barges. ere are three main ways in which waste is handled (1) incinerated at a waste-to-energy facility, (2) treated and disposed of at a landll, and

D-12 Planning Freight-Efcient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-11. Schematic of waste and recyclables supply chain. (3) recycled at a recycling facility. e selection of a handling method depends on the toxicity of the waste and its potential to be recycled. Recyclable products are typically separated from waste by the suppliers. ey can be sent to a recycling facility or loaded onto containers and exported to other countries. Nonhazardous waste is separated from hazardous waste by suppliers, because hazardous waste requires special treatment before disposal. Nonhazardous household solid waste may be incinerated or disposed of at the municipal solid waste landll site. Municipal landlls receive household waste and possibly other nonhazardous waste, such as commercial solid waste and nonhazardous sludge. Industrial waste, such as construction and demolition debris, is sent to construction and demolition (C&D) debris landll sites for disposal. Health- care waste can include infectious, hazardous, and sharp material. Specic procedures must be followed for disinfection and disposal to ensure the safety of people handling the waste and the surrounding community. Because there are general health and environmental concerns over various waste disposal facilities, the end receivers tend to be located very far away from these facilities. Within urban areas, there are many collection points that the waste truck must reach before returning to the waste processing facility. is could be a slow and tedious operation, and some waste haulers prefer to perform waste collection between 10pm and 6am to avoid trac congestion, blocked access to collection bins, and other delays. Waste collection truck noise may be an issue in denser urban areas. New buildings can be designed to dampen the noise during the waste collection process within the building. D.12 Parcel Delivery Supply Chain Parcel delivery is of growing importance in urban and metropolitan areas due to the rise in e-commerce sales. e demand for parcel delivery increases as consumers purchase products online and receive their products at home instead of purchasing them at retail stores. Retail is

Descriptions of Typical Supply Chains D-13   no longer only in brick-and-mortar format, but it is also in the form of an online store where the consumer can look through the catalog listed on the company’s website. Products are delivered by a third-party carrier. e third-party carrier may be a local postal service provider, or a private logistics company such as DHL, FedEx, or UPS. e supplier may be a manufacturer, wholesaler, or a small enterprise that supplies customized homemade products. ey may be in exurban areas or in the heart of the city. e parcels may be dropped o at parcel drop-o points, such as a post oce or a retail store of the carrier. Alternatively, the carrier may send a representative to the supplier to pick up the parcel. Parcels received from the supplier will be sent to the sorting facility so that parcels with similar routes can be consolidated for shipment. If the parcel’s destination is located within the service area of the sorting facility, the parcel will be delivered from the sorting facility directly. However, if the destination is not within the service area, the parcel will be sent to the regional consolidation center to be re-routed to the correct sorting facility. Small sorting facilities, such as post oces, may be located within the urban area, while large sorting facilities and regional consolidation centers may be in the exurban area. Figure D-12 illustrates a typical schematic of the third-party carrier supply chain for parcel deliveries. ere are three main types of delivery services: (1) normal/ground delivery, (2) expe- dited delivery, and (3) international delivery. Normal/ground deliveries are delivery services that do not require air transport and will go through the entire supply chain using the lowest-cost route. Expedited delivery services are services that allow parcels to reach their destination earlier than normal/ground deliveries with additional charges. Expedited deliveries typically do not follow the same route as the normal/ground deliveries. Parcels with dierent types of delivery will be separated at the sorting facility. Depending on the urgency of the delivery, the parcel may be re-routed from the sorting facility directly to the destination. A few dierent expedited services may be oered by the carrier, such as priority delivery that is faster than normal delivery or over- night delivery, which promises to reach the destination the next day. International deliveries are Legend: Global Metropolitan National/Regional Local Figure D-12. Schematic of parcel delivery supply chain.

D-14 Planning Freight-Efficient Land Uses: Methodology, Strategies, and Tools delivery services that require the parcel to be delivered to another country. Parcel deliveries for households typically use air freight instead of sea freight because the consumer expects their package to arrive in a matter of days rather than weeks (International Air Transport Association 2017). For the parcel delivery supply chain, the carrier has control over the mode of transport and limited control of the shipment size and frequency. The end receiver typically will decide the number of products they would like to purchase and when they would like to receive the products (Holguín­Veras et al. 2017a). End receivers that generally purchase a small number of products and demand fast delivery will reduce the shipment size and increase the delivery trips of small trucks. However, the supplier can provide incentives for end receivers to aggregate orders or opt for a later delivery date. This allows the carrier to increase shipment size and reduce delivery trips in general, making the supply chain more efficient. References 1. Rhodes, S., et al. NCFRP Report 14: Guidebook for Understanding Urban Goods Movement. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, DC, 2012. 2. U.S. Energy Information Administration. How Much Petroleum Does the United States Import and Export? 2018 04/04/2018 [cited 2018 07/12]; from https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=727&t=6. 3. U.S. Department of Energy. Ethanol Production and Distribution. 2018 03/22/2018 [cited 2018 07/12]; 4. Tait, K.D., In Chapter 79 - Pharmaceutical Industry, in Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, J. Stellman, Editor, 1998. 5. Sumners, C. Drug Stability: How Storage Conditions Affect Their Performance. Vital Record: News from TEXAS A&M University Health Science Center, 2016. 6. International Air Transport Association. Air Cargo Serving E­commerce. Scanning the Horizon ­ An IATA Cargo White Paper, 2017. 7. Holguín­Veras, J., et al. Role and Potential of a Trusted Vendor Certification Program to Foster Adoption of Unassisted Off­Hour Deliveries. Transporation Research Part A, 2017. 102: p. 157–171.

Abbreviations and acronyms used without denitions in TRB publications: A4A Airlines for America AAAE American Association of Airport Executives AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program ADA Americans with Disabilities Act APTA American Public Transportation Association ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATA American Trucking Associations CTAA Community Transportation Association of America CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program DHS Department of Homeland Security DOE Department of Energy EPA Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FAST Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (2015) FHWA Federal Highway Administration FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration FRA Federal Railroad Administration FTA Federal Transit Administration GHSA Governors Highway Safety Association HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012) NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NTSB National Transportation Safety Board PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (2005) TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program TDC Transit Development Corporation TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998) TRB Transportation Research Board TSA Transportation Security Administration U.S. DOT United States Department of Transportation

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