National Academies Press: OpenBook

The Earth's Electrical Environment (1986)

Chapter: References

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Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 1986. The Earth's Electrical Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/898.
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Page 164
Suggested Citation:"References." National Research Council. 1986. The Earth's Electrical Environment. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/898.
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Page 165

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ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER 164 tivity has even led to the suggestion that conductivity be used as a monitor of nuclear operations and accidents. The electrical state of the atmosphere depends critically on the ionization profile. Over the ocean ionization is due only to cosmic rays, and oceanic measurement of the electrode effect are in satisfactory agreement with numerical solutions of the governing equations. Over land, the ionization profile is complicated owing to ionization from ground radioactivity and radioactive gases as discussed earlier. Simultaneous measurement of all contributions to the ionization profile has never been accomplished. It is imperative that future studies of atmospheric-electrical profiles in the PBL over land include such measurements. A theoretical explanation is needed for the atmospheric-electric fog effect. This is most likely to be found in the dependence of the conductivity on changes in the aerosol size distribution with changes in relative humidity. Measurements of all pertinent parameters are needed during a fog event to formulate a physical theory that adequately accounts for the observations. The possible usefulness of the observed precursor phenomenon could then be evaluated. Finally it should be mentioned that there are some experimental techniques that do not yet exist in satisfactory form for proper studies of PBL electrical processes. Briefly, these include a continuous measurement of ionospheric potential with fine time resolution, ion-sampling techniques with spatial resolutions suitable for profile determinations in the lowest few centimeters of the PBL (and within the plant canopy), and an adequately instrumented platform for making accurate atmospheric-electrical and micrometeorological profiles throughout the PBL. References Anderson, R. V. (1967). Measurement of worldwide diurnal atmospheric electricity variations, Mon. Weather Rev. 95 , 899 . Anderson, R. V., and E. M. Trent (1969). Atmospheric electricity measurements at five locations in eastern North America, J. Appl. Meteorol. 8 , 707 . Arnold, F., and E. F. Ferguson (1983). Ions of the middle atmosphere: Their composition, chemistry and role in atmospheric processes, in Proceedings in Atmospheric Electricity , L. H. Ruhnke and J. Latham, eds., A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, Va., p. 14 . Blanchard, D. C. (1963). Electrification of the atmosphere by particles from bubbles in the sea, Prog. Oceanogr. 1 , 71-202 . Clark, J. F. (1958). The fair-weather atmospheric electric potential and its gradient, in Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity , L. G. Smith, ed., Pergamon Press, New York, p. 61 . Cobb, W. E., and H. J. Wells (1970). The electrical conductivity of ocean air and its correlation to global atmospheric pollution, J. Atmos. Sci. 27 , 814 . Crozier, W. D., and N. Biles (1966). Measurements of Radon 220 (thoron) in the atmosphere below 50 centimeters, J. Geophys. Res. 71 , 4735 . Dolezalak, H. (1963). The atmospheric electric fog effect, Rev. Geophys. 1 , 231-282 . Dolezalek, H. (1978). On the application of atmospheric electricity concepts and methods to other parts of meteorology, Technical Note No. 162 , World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 130 pp . Gathman, S. G., and W. A. Hoppel (1970). Electrification processes over Lake Superior, J. Geophys. Res. 75 , 1041 . Haugen, D. A. (1973). Workshop on Micrometerology , American Meteorological Society, Boston, Mass., 392 pp . Holzworth, R. H., M. H. Daley, E. R. Schnaus, and O. Youngblath (1981). Direct measurement of lower atmospheric vertical potential differences, Geophys. Res. Lett. 8 , 783 . Hoppel, W. A. (1967). Theory of the electrode effect, J. Atmos. Terrest. Phys. 29 , 709 . Hoppel, W. A., and S. G. Gathman (1972). Experimental determination of the eddy diffusion coefficient over the open ocean from atmospheric electric measurements, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 2 , 248 . Huertas, M. L., J. Fontan, and J. Gonzalez (1978). Evolution times of tropospheric ions , Atmos. Environ. 12 , 2351 . Huzita, A. (1969). Effect of radioactive fallout upon the electrical conductivity of the lower atmosphere, in Planetary Electrodynamics , S. C. Coroniti and J. Hughes, eds., Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, New York, Vol. 1, p. 49 . Ikebe, Y. (1970). Evaluation of the total ionization in the lower atmosphere, J. Earth Sci., Nagoya Univ. 18 , 85 . Ikebe, Y., and M. Shimo (1972). Estimation of the vertical turbulent diffusivity from thoron profiles, Tellus 24 , 29 . Israël, H. (1958). The atmospheric electric agitation, in Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity , L. G. Smith, ed., Pergamon Press, New York, p. 149 . Iraël, H. (1961). Atmosphärische Elektrizität , Teil II, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 503 pp . Israel, H. (1973). Atmospheric Electricity , Volume II , NTIS, U.S. Department of Commerce , Springfield, Va., 570 pp . Kraakevik, J. H. (1958). Electrical conduction and convection currents in the troposphere, in Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity , L. G. Smith, ed., Pergamon Press, New York, p. 75 . Markson, R. (1975). Atmospheric electrical detection of organized convection, Science 188 , 1171-1177 . Markson, R. (1977). Airborne atmospheric electrical measurements of the variation of ionospheric potential and electrical structure in the exchange layer over the ocean, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, p. 450 . Markson, R., J. Sedlacek, and C. W. Fairall (1981). Turbulent transport of electric charge in the marine atmospheric boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res. 86 , 12115 . MEQB (1982). A health and safety evaluation of the +400 kV powerline: Report of science advisors to the Minnesota Environmental Quality Board, Minnesota Environmental Quality Board, Saint Paul, Minn. Mohnen, V. A. (1977). Formation, Nature and Mobility of ions of atmospheric importance, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, p. 1 . Moses, H., A. F. Stehney, and H. F. Lucas, Jr. (1960). The effect of meteorological variables upon the vertical and temporal distributions of atmospheric radon, J. Geophys. Res. 65 , 1223 . Mühleisen, R. (1977). The global circuit and its parameters, in Electrical Processes in Atmospheres , H. Dolezalek and R. Reiter, eds., Steinkopff, Darmstadt, p. 467 .

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN THE PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER 165 Nolan, P.J. (1943). The recombination law for weak ionization, Proc. R. Irish Acad. 49 , 67 . Ruhnke, L. H., H. F. Tammet, and M. Arold (1983). Atmospheric electric currents at widely spaced stations, in Proceedings in Atmospheric Electricity , L. H. Ruhnke and J. Latham, eds., A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, Va., p. 76 . Sagalyn, R. C., and G. A. Faucher (1956). Space and time variations of charged nuclei and electrical conductivity of the atmosphere, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 82 , 428 . Serbu, G. P., and E. M. Trent (1958). A study of the use of atmospheric electric measurements in fog forecasting , Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 39 , 1034 . Takagi, M., and N. Toriyama (1978). Short-period fluctuations in the atmospheric electric field over the ocean, Pure Appl. Phys. 116 , 1090 . Torreson, O. W., et al. (1946). Scientific Results of Cruise VII of the Carnegie, Oceanography III, Ocean Atmospheric Electricity Results , Carnegie Institution Publication 568, Washington, D.C. Willett, J. C. (1983). The turbulent electrode effect as influenced by interfacial ion transfer, J. Geophys. Res. 88 , 8453 . Willett, J. C., and W. D. Rust (1981). Direct measurements of atmospheric electric potential using tethered balloons, J. Geophys. Res. 86 , 12139 . Wyngaard, J. C. (1980). Workshop on the Planetary Boundary Layer , American Meteorological Society, Boston, Mass., 322 pp .

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This latest addition to the Studies in Geophysics series explores in scientific detail the phenomenon of lightning, cloud, and thunderstorm electricity, and global and regional electrical processes. Consisting of 16 papers by outstanding experts in a number of fields, this volume compiles and reviews many recent advances in such research areas as meteorology, chemistry, electrical engineering, and physics and projects how new knowledge could be applied to benefit mankind.

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